Claus Bekker Jeppesen

Small-molecule agonists for the glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor.

The peptide hormone glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1 has important actions resulting in glucose lowering along with weight loss in patients with type 2 diabetes. As a peptide hormone, GLP-1 has to be administered by injection. Only a few small-molecule agonists to peptide hormone receptors have been described and none in the B family of the G protein coupled receptors to which the GLP-1 receptor belongs. We have discovered a series of small molecules known as ago-allosteric modulators selective for the human GLP-1 receptor. These compounds act as both allosteric activators of the receptor and independent agonists. Potency of GLP-1 was not changed by the allosteric agonists, but affinity of GLP-1 for the receptor was increased. The most potent compound identified stimulates glucose-dependent insulin release from normal mouse islets but, importantly, not from GLP-1 receptor knockout mice. Also, the compound stimulates insulin release from perfused rat pancreas in a manner additive with GLP-1 itself. These compounds may lead to the identification or design of orally active GLP-1 agonists.

2-(oxalylamino)-benzoic acid is a general, competitive inhibitor of protein-tyrosine phosphatases.

Protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) are critically involved in regulation of signal transduction processes. Members of this class of enzymes are considered attractive therapeutic targets in several disease states, e.g. diabetes, cancer, and inflammation. However, most reported PTP inhibitors have been phosphorus-containing compounds, tight binding inhibitors, and/or inhibitors that covalently modify the enzymes. We therefore embarked on identifying a general, reversible, competitive PTP inhibitor that could be used as a common scaffold for lead optimization for specific PTPs. We here report the identification of 2-(oxalylamino)-benzoic acid (OBA) as a classical competitive inhibitor of several PTPs. X-ray crystallography of PTP1B complexed with OBA and related non-phosphate low molecular weight derivatives reveals that the binding mode of these molecules to a large extent mimics that of the natural substrate including hydrogen bonding to the PTP signature motif. In addition, binding of OBA to the active site of PTP1B creates a unique arrangement involving Asp181, Lys120, and Tyr46. PTP inhibitors are essential tools in elucidating the biological function of specific PTPs and they may eventually be developed into selective drug candidates. The unique enzyme kinetic features and the low molecular weight of OBA makes it an ideal starting point for further optimization.

Novel glucagon receptor antagonists with improved selectivity over the glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor.

Optimization of a new series of small molecule human glucagon receptor (hGluR) antagonists is described. In the process of optimizing glucagon receptor antagonists, we counter-screened against the closely related human gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptor (hGIPR), and through structure activity analysis, we obtained compounds with low nanomolar affinities toward the hGluR, which were selective against the hGIPR and the human glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (hGLP-1R). In the best cases, we obtained a >50 fold selectivity for the hGluR over the hGIPR and a >1000 fold selectivity over the hGLP-1R. A potent and selective glucagon receptor antagonist was demonstrated to inhibit glucagon-induced glycogenolysis in primary rat hepatocytes as well as to lower glucagon-induced hyperglycemia in Sprague-Dawley rats. Furthermore, the compound was shown to lower blood glucose in the ob/ob mouse after oral dosing.

Changes in Glucose and Fat Metabolism in Response to the Administration of a Hepato-Preferential Insulin Analog

Endogenous insulin secretion exposes the liver to three times higher insulin concentrations than the rest of the body. Because subcutaneous insulin delivery eliminates this gradient and is associated with metabolic abnormalities, functionally restoring the physiologic gradient may provide therapeutic benefits. The effects of recombinant human insulin (HI) delivered intraportally or peripherally were compared with an acylated insulin model compound (insulin-327) in dogs. During somatostatin and basal portal vein glucagon infusion, insulin was infused portally (PoHI; 1.8 pmol/kg/min; n = 7) or peripherally (PeHI; 1.8 pmol/kg/min; n = 8) and insulin-327 (Pe327; 7.2 pmol/kg/min; n = 5) was infused peripherally. Euglycemia was maintained by glucose infusion. While the effects on liver glucose metabolism were greatest in the PoHI and Pe327 groups, nonhepatic glucose uptake increased most in the PeHI group. Suppression of lipolysis was greater during PeHI than PoHI and was delayed in Pe327 infusion. Thus small increments in portal vein insulin have major consequences on the liver, with little effect on nonhepatic glucose metabolism, whereas insulin delivered peripherally cannot act on the liver without also affecting nonhepatic tissues. Pe327 functionally restored the physiologic portal–arterial gradient and thereby produced hepato-preferential effects.

Comparison of a Luminescent Oxygen Channeling Immunoassay and an ELISA for detecting Insulin Aspart in human serum

The study was a comparison between a Luminescent Oxygen Channeling Immunoassay (LOCI) and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for quantification of Insulin Aspart (IAsp) in human serum. The advantage of LOCI compared to ELISA is reduced workload and higher throughput. The ELISA assay was performed as published (Andersen et al., 2000 [5]). The LOCI followed a 2-step reaction. First, the sample was incubated for 1h with a mixture of biotinylated antibody specific for IAsp and beads coated with insulin-detecting antibody. This step was followed by a 30-min incubation with beads covalently coated with streptavidin. When the beads were brought in proximity through binding of IAsp, light was generated from a chemiluminescent reaction in the beads. This light was measured and quantified. Spiked samples with different concentrations of IAsp were prepared in human serum to compare ELISA and LOCI. Human serum samples (n=510) from a pilot study with healthy subjects receiving IAsp were also analysed and compared in the two assays. Higher precision, improved accuracy and a wider analytical range were found using LOCI compared to ELISA. However, sample haemolysis interfered more when using LOCI than ELISA. The IAsp concentrations determined in the human serum samples from the pilot study gave a good correlation between the two assays. In conclusion, LOCI can determine IAsp in human serum just as well as ELISA. Using LOCI reduces the workload, which is particularly useful when handling large sample sizes.

Recombinant Adiponectin Does Not Lower Plasma Glucose in Animal Models of Type 2 Diabetes

Aims/Hypothesis Several studies have shown that adiponectin can lower blood glucose in diabetic mice. The aim of this study was to establish an effective adiponectin production process and to evaluate the anti-diabetic potential of the different adiponectin forms in diabetic mice and sand rats. Methods Human high molecular weight, mouse low molecular weight and mouse plus human globular adiponectin forms were expressed and purified from mammalian cells or yeast. The purified protein was administered at 10–30 mg/kg i.p. b.i.d. to diabetic db/db mice for 2 weeks. Furthermore, high molecular weight human and globular mouse adiponectin batches were administered at 5–15 mg/kg i.p. b.i.d. to diabetic sand rats for 12 days. Results Surprisingly, none of our batches had any effect on blood glucose, HbA1c, plasma lipids or body weight in diabetic db/db mice or sand rats. In vitro biological, biochemical and biophysical data suggest that the protein was correctly folded and biologically active. Conclusions/Interpretation Recombinant adiponectin is ineffective at lowering blood glucose in diabetic db/db mice or sand rats.

Structure-Based Design of Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase Inhibitors

Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) are a family of intracellular enzymes that remove phosphate from tyrosine phosphorylated proteins. The PTP superfamily includes tyrosine phosphate-specific classical PTPs, dual-specificity PTPs, and low-molecularweight PTPs. PTPs and protein tyrosine kinases reversibly regulate the phosphotyrosine level in selected cellular proteins, thereby controlling many important signaling pathways in eukaryotes. Aberrant tyrosine phosphorylation levels have been associated with the development of cancer, autoimmunity, and diabetes, thus indicating that PTPs might play important etiological and pathogenic roles in these diseases. As a result, these enzymes have recently attracted much interest as potential drug targets. This is in particular due to the finding that PTP1B knockout mice show increased insulin sensitivity and resistance to diet-induced obesity, thus indicating that PTP1B is an important negative regulator of insulin and leptin action and hence a potentially important drug target for the treatment of diabetes and obesity. The development of PTP inhibitors, in particular PTP1B inhibitors, has been greatly facilitated by an impressive number of X-ray structures that have allowed structure-based design of highly selective inhibitors of PTP1B, the main focus of this review. The initial attempts to design selective PTP inhibitors were based on replacement of pTyr with non-hydrolyzable phosphotyrosyl mimetics in small, efficient PTP peptide substrates, thereby utilizing both the potency and selectivity provided by the amino acid residues. However, several groups have now shown that it is possible to synthesize highly potent and selective non-phosphorus, non-peptide inhibitors of PTP1B. At this point, these achievements to some extent seem to have been reached at the expense of appropriate pharmacokinetic properties, including cellular uptake. Therefore, the next wave within the field of PTP inhibitors is likely to be focused on improvements in this respect. In addition, several other PTPs could potentially be attractive drug targets in autoimmunity and cancer.