Clemens Alt

Direct measurement of local oxygen concentration in the bone marrow of live animals

Characterization of how the microenvironment, or niche, regulates stem cell activity is central to understanding stem cell biology and to developing strategies for the therapeutic manipulation of stem cells. Low oxygen tension (hypoxia) is commonly thought to be a shared niche characteristic in maintaining quiescence in multiple stem cell types. However, support for the existence of a hypoxic niche has largely come from indirect evidence such as proteomic analysis, expression of hypoxia inducible factor-1α (Hif-1α) and related genes, and staining with surrogate hypoxic markers (for example, pimonidazole). Here we perform direct in vivo measurements of local oxygen tension (pO2) in the bone marrow of live mice. Using two-photon phosphorescence lifetime microscopy, we determined the absolute pO2 of the bone marrow to be quite low (<32 mm Hg) despite very high vascular density. We further uncovered heterogeneities in local pO2, with the lowest pO2 (∼9.9 mm Hg, or 1.3%) found in deeper peri-sinusoidal regions. The endosteal region, by contrast, is less hypoxic as it is perfused with small arteries that are often positive for the marker nestin. These pO2 values change markedly after radiation and chemotherapy, pointing to the role of stress in altering the stem cell metabolic microenvironment.

CXCR4 inhibitor AMD3100 disrupts the interaction of multiple myeloma cells with the bone marrow microenvironment and enhances their sensitivity to therapy

The interaction of multiple myeloma (MM) cells with their microenvironment in the bone marrow (BM) provides a protective environment and resistance to therapeutic agents. We hypothesized that disruption of the interaction of MM cells with their BM milieu would lead to their sensitization to therapeutic agents such as bortezomib, melphalan, doxorubicin, and dexamethasone. We report that the CXCR4 inhibitor AMD3100 induces disruption of the interaction of MM cells with the BM reflected by mobilization of MM cells into the circulation in vivo, with kinetics that differed from that of hematopoietic stem cells. AMD3100 enhanced sensitivity of MM cell to multiple therapeutic agents in vitro by disrupting adhesion of MM cells to bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs). Moreover, AMD3100 increased mobilization of MM cells to the circulation in vivo, increased the ratio of apoptotic circulating MM cells, and enhanced the tumor reduction induced by bortezomib. Mechanistically, AMD3100 significantly inhibited Akt phosphorylation and enhanced poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage as a result of bortezomib, in the presence of BMSCs in coculture. These experiments provide a proof of concept for the use of agents that disrupt interaction with the microenvironment for enhancement of efficacy of cytotoxic agents in cancer therapy.

ABCB5 is a limbal stem cell gene required for corneal development and repair

Corneal epithelial homeostasis and regeneration are sustained by limbal stem cells (LSCs), and LSC deficiency is a major cause of blindness worldwide. Transplantation is often the only therapeutic option available to patients with LSC deficiency. However, while transplant success depends foremost on LSC frequency within grafts, a gene allowing for prospective LSC enrichment has not been identified so far. Here we show that ATP-binding cassette, sub-family B, member 5 (ABCB5) marks LSCs and is required for LSC maintenance, corneal development and repair. Furthermore, we demonstrate that prospectively isolated human or murine ABCB5-positive LSCs possess the exclusive capacity to fully restore the cornea upon grafting to LSC-deficient mice in xenogeneic or syngeneic transplantation models. ABCB5 is preferentially expressed on label-retaining LSCs in mice and p63α-positive LSCs in humans. Consistent with these findings, ABCB5-positive LSC frequency is reduced in LSC-deficient patients. Abcb5 loss of function in Abcb5 knockout mice causes depletion of quiescent LSCs due to enhanced proliferation and apoptosis, and results in defective corneal differentiation and wound healing. Our results from gene knockout studies, LSC tracing and transplantation models, as well as phenotypic and functional analyses of human biopsy specimens, provide converging lines of evidence that ABCB5 identifies mammalian LSCs. Identification and prospective isolation of molecularly defined LSCs with essential functions in corneal development and repair has important implications for the treatment of corneal disease, particularly corneal blindness due to LSC deficiency.

Self-renewal of a purified Tie2+ hematopoietic stem cell population relies on mitochondrial clearance

Purified hematopoietic stem cells reveal that mitophagy plays a key role in their expansion. How to maintain hematopoietic stem cells Hematopoiesis provides the body with a continuous supply of blood cells (see the Perspective by Sommerkamp and Trumpp). Taya et al. report that amino acid content is important for hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) maintenance in vitro and in vivo. Dietary valine restriction seems to “empty” the mouse bone marrow niche. Ito et al. used single-cell approaches and cell transplantation to identify a subset of HSCs at the top of the HSC hierarchy. Self-renewal relied on the induction of mitophagy, a quality-control process linked to a cells metabolic state. Both studies may be helpful in improving clinical bone marrow transplantation. Science, this issue p. 1103, p. 1152; see also p. 1156 A single hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) is capable of reconstituting hematopoiesis and maintaining homeostasis by balancing self-renewal and cell differentiation. The mechanisms of HSC division balance, however, are not yet defined. Here we demonstrate, by characterizing at the single-cell level a purified and minimally heterogeneous murine Tie2+ HSC population, that these top hierarchical HSCs preferentially undergo symmetric divisions. The induction of mitophagy, a quality control process in mitochondria, plays an essential role in self-renewing expansion of Tie2+ HSCs. Activation of the PPAR (peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor)–fatty acid oxidation pathway promotes expansion of Tie2+ HSCs through enhanced Parkin recruitment in mitochondria. These metabolic pathways are conserved in human TIE2+ HSCs. Our data thus identify mitophagy as a key mechanism of HSC expansion and suggest potential methods of cell-fate manipulation through metabolic pathways.

Structural Changes of the Retina after Conventional Laser Photocoagulation and Selective Retina Treatment (SRT) in Spectral Domain OCT

Background: Spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) in patients can deliver retinal cross-sectional images with high resolution. This may allow the evaluation of the extent of damage to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and the neurosensory retina after laser treatment. This article aims to investigate the value of SD-OCT in comparing laser lesions produced by conventional laser photocoagulation and selective retina treatment (SRT). Material and Methods: In a retrospective study, conventional retinal laser (CRL) lesions and SRT laser lesions were evaluated with SD-OCT. One hundred seventy-five CRL lesions were investigated in 10 patients with diabetic maculopathy at timepoints between 1 hr and 4 years after treatment. Ninety-one SRT lesions were examined in 9 patients with central serous retinopathy, geographic atrophy, and diabetic maculopathy at timepoints between 1 hr and 2 years. CRL lesions were applied with an ophthalmoscopically slightly grayish-white appearance (Nd:YAG laser at 532-nm wavelength; power 100–200 mW; retinal spot diameter 100 μm; pulse duration 100 ms). SRT lesions were applied with a Nd:YLF (527 nm; pulse duration 200 ns [30 pulses at 100 Hz]; energy 100–200 μJ/pulse; retinal spot diameter 200 μm) and were visible only angiographically. Results: All CRL lesions were characterized by high reflectivity in OCT images throughout the full thickness of the neurosensory tissue 1 hr after irradiation, suggesting complete neurosensory coagulation. Strong contraction through the full thickness of the neurosensory layers was observed within 7 days after treatment. In contrast, the neural retina appeared unaffected after SRT. For both lesion types, the RPE layer appeared to be regular or thinner immediately after treatment, whereas within a period of 4 weeks, a RPE thickening indicating RPE proliferation was observable. One year and later after treatment, CRL lesions were characterized by RPE atrophy combined with significant damage of the neurosensory tissue. SRT lesions aged one year and older revealed unaffected neurosensory structures and an intact RPE layer. Conclusion: Spectral domain OCT can be used clinically to follow the development of laser-induced lesions over time. Postoperative RPE proliferation was observed in both CRL and SRT laser lesions. RPE atrophy appeared subsequently only in CRL lesions, whereas the neurosensory retina appeared unaffected following SRT. These results suggest the selective effect of SRT in humans without causing adverse effects to the neurosensory retina.

Optical detection of intracellular cavitation during selective laser targeting of the retinal pigment epithelium: dependence of cell death mechanism on pulse duration

Selective laser targeting of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is an attractive method for treating RPE-associated disorders. We are developing a method for optically detecting intracellular microcavitation that can potentially serve as an immediate feedback of the treatment outcome. Thermal denaturation or intracellular cavitation can kill RPE cells during selective targeting. We examined the cell damage mechanism for laser pulse durations from 1 to 40 micros ex vivo. Intracellular cavitation was detected as a transient increase in the backscattered treatment beam. Cavitation and cell death were correlated for individual cells after single-pulse irradiation. The threshold radiant exposures for cell death (ED(50,d)) and cavitation (ED(50,c)) increased with pulse duration and were approximately equal for pulses of up to 10 micros. For 20 micros, the ED(50,d) was about 10% lower than the ED(50,c); the difference increased with 40-micros pulses. Cells were killed predominantly by cavitation (up to 10-micros pulses); probability of thermally induced cell death without cavitation gradually increases with pulse duration. Threshold measurements are discussed by modeling the temperature distribution around laser-heated melanosomes and the scattering function from the resulting cavitation. Detection of intracellular cavitation is a highly sensitive method that can potentially provide real-time assessment of RPE damage during selective laser targeting.

Soluble Guanylate Cyclase α1–Deficient Mice: A Novel Murine Model for Primary Open Angle Glaucoma

Primary open angle glaucoma (POAG) is a leading cause of blindness worldwide. The molecular signaling involved in the pathogenesis of POAG remains unknown. Here, we report that mice lacking the α1 subunit of the nitric oxide receptor soluble guanylate cyclase represent a novel and translatable animal model of POAG, characterized by thinning of the retinal nerve fiber layer and loss of optic nerve axons in the context of an open iridocorneal angle. The optic neuropathy associated with soluble guanylate cyclase α1–deficiency was accompanied by modestly increased intraocular pressure and retinal vascular dysfunction. Moreover, data from a candidate gene association study suggests that a variant in the locus containing the genes encoding for the α1 and β1 subunits of soluble guanylate cyclase is associated with POAG in patients presenting with initial paracentral vision loss, a disease subtype thought to be associated with vascular dysregulation. These findings provide new insights into the pathogenesis and genetics of POAG and suggest new therapeutic strategies for POAG.

In vivo imaging flow cytometer

We introduce an in vivo imaging flow cytometer, which provides fluorescence images simultaneously with quantitative information on the cell population of interest in a live animal. As fluorescent cells pass through the slit of light focused across a blood vessel, the excited fluorescence is confocally detected. This cell signal triggers a strobe beam and a high sensitivity CCD camera that captures a snapshot image of the cell as it moves down-stream from the slit. We demonstrate that the majority of signal peaks detected in the in vivo flow cytometer arise form individual cells. The instrument’s capability to image circulating T cells and measure their speed in the blood vessel in real time in vivo is demonstrated. The cell signal irradiance variation, clustering percentage, and potential applications in biology and medicine are discussed.

An optical platform for cell tracking in adult zebrafish.

Adult zebrafish are being increasingly used as a model in cancer and stem cell research. Here we describe an integrated optical system that combines a laser scanning confocal microscope (LSCM) and an in vivo flow cytometer (IVFC) for simultaneous visualization and cell quantification. The system is set up specifically for non‐invasive tracking of both stationary and circulating cells in adult zebrafish (casper) that have been engineered to be optically transparent. Confocal imaging in this instrument serves the dual purpose of visualizing fish tissue microstructure and an imaging‐based guide to locate a suitable vessel for quantitative analysis of circulating cells by IVFC. We demonstrate initial testing of this novel instrument by imaging the transparent adult zebrafish casper vasculature and tracking circulating cells in CD41‐GFP/Gata1‐DsRed transgenic fish whose thrombocytes/erythrocytes express the green and red fluorescent proteins. In vivo measurements allow cells to be tracked under physiological conditions in the same fish over time, without drawing blood samples or sacrificing animals. We also discuss the potential applications of this instrument in biomedical research.

Retinal flow cytometer

The in vivo flow cytometer is an instrument capable of continuous, real-time monitoring of fluorescently labeled cells in the circulation without the need to draw blood samples. However, the original system probes a single vessel in the mouse ear; the small sample volume limits the sensitivity of the technique. We describe an in vivo retinal flow cytometer that simultaneously probes five artery-vein pairs in the mouse eye by circularly scanning a small laser spot rapidly around the optic nerve head. We demonstrate that the retinal flow cytometer detects about five times more cells per minute than the original in vivo flow cytometer does in the ear.