Constance Burke

The revised FLACC observational pain tool: improved reliability and validity for pain assessment in children with cognitive impairment

Background:  Difficulty with pain assessment in individuals who cannot self‐report their pain poses a significant barrier to effective pain management. However, available assessment tools lack consistent reliability as pain measures in children with cognitive impairment (CI). This study evaluated the validity and reliability of the revised and individualized Face Legs Activity Cry and Consolability (FLACC) behavioral pain assessment tool in children with CI.

Incidence and Risk Factors for Perioperative Adverse Respiratory Events in Children Who Are Obese

Background:Consistent with the increasing prevalence of obesity in the United States and many countries worldwide, anesthesiologists are now presented with a greater number of adult and pediatric patients who are significantly overweight. This prospective study was designed to examine the relation between age-adjusted body mass index, preoperative comorbidities, and perioperative outcome in children. Methods:Children aged 2–18 yr undergoing noncardiac elective procedures were classified as overweight or obese based on their age- and sex-adjusted body mass index. Information was elicited regarding patient demographics, presence of comorbidities, and anesthetic technique. Data regarding the incidence and severity of perioperative adverse events were collected prospectively. Results:Two thousand twenty-five children comprised the sample (1,380 normal weight, 351 overweight, and 294 obese). Obese children had a significantly higher prevalence of comorbidities than nonobese children, including asthma, hypertension, sleep apnea, and type II diabetes. Furthermore, obese children had a higher incidence of difficult mask ventilation, airway obstruction, major oxygen desaturation (>10% of baseline), and overall critical respiratory adverse events. Logistic regression analysis revealed several risk factors for adverse events, including procedures involving the airway, obesity, age younger than 10 yr, and a history of obstructive sleep apnea. Conclusions:These results suggest that children presenting for elective surgical procedures who are obese have a greater prevalence of preexisting comorbid medical conditions and an increased incidence of perioperative adverse respiratory events compared with normal-weight children. Identification and awareness of risk factors for perioperative complications will be important in optimizing the anesthetic management of these children.

Neck Circumference as a Screening Measure for Identifying Children With High Body Mass Index

OBJECTIVES: Overweight in children is most commonly described by using BMI. Because BMI does not adequately describe regional (central) adiposity, other indices of body fatness are being explored. Neck circumference (NC) is positively associated with obstructive sleep apnea, diabetes, and hypertension in adults. NC also has positive correlation with BMI in adults. The possible role of NC in screening for high BMI in children is not well characterized. The aims of this investigation were to examine the correlation between BMI and NC in children and to determine the best NC cutoff that identifies children with high BMI. METHODS: Children who were aged 6 to 18 years and undergoing elective noncardiac surgeries were the subjects of this study. Trained research assistants collected clinical and anthropometric data from all patients. We calculated Pearson correlation coefficients between NC and other indices of obesity. We then determined by receiver operating characteristic analyses the optimal NC cutoff for identifying children with high BMI. RESULTS: Among 1102 children, 52% were male. NC was significantly correlated with age, BMI, and waist circumference in both boys and girls, although the correlation was stronger in older children. Optimal NC cutoff indicative of high BMI in boys ranged from 28.5 to 39.0 cm. Corresponding values in girls ranged from 27.0 to 34.6 cm. CONCLUSIONS: NC is significantly correlated with indices of adiposity and can reliably identify children with high BMI. NC is a simple technique that has good interrater reliability and could be used to screen for overweight and obesity in children.

Comparing peripheral venous access between obese and normal weight children.

Introduction:  Intravenous (i.v.) access is sometimes a difficult, time‐consuming, and highly frustrating procedure. Obesity is widely believed to be associated with difficult peripheral intravenous access (PIV) placement. This study examined the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and ease of venous access in children undergoing noncardiac surgical procedures.

Clonidine for the prevention of emergence agitation in young children: efficacy and recovery profile.

Background:  Emergence agitation (EA) is a common postoperative problem in young children who have received sevoflurane and isoflurane for general anesthesia. This randomized, double‐blinded study evaluated the efficacy of intraoperative clonidine in reducing EA, and describes its recovery profile.

An assessment of interrater reliability of the ASA physical status classification in pediatric surgical patients

Background:  The American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status classification (ASA‐PS) is used worldwide by anesthesia providers as an assessment of the preoperative physical status of patients. This assessment score has been inconsistently assigned by anesthesia providers among adult surgical patients. This study tested the reliability of assignment of ASA‐PS classification among pediatric anesthesia providers.

Association of Neck Circumference With Perioperative Adverse Respiratory Events in Children

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this investigation was to examine the association of neck circumference (NC) with perioperative respiratory adverse events in children undergoing elective noncardiac surgery, a relationship that has not been previously characterized. METHODS: Using a prospective, observational design, we studied children aged 6 to 18 years undergoing elective noncardiac surgeries at our institution. Trained research assistants collected clinical (including perioperative adverse events) and anthropometric data from all subjects. Patients were stratified into 2 classes: high NC versus low NC on the basis of age- and gender-specific receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. Subsequently, univariate factors associated with high NC were explored, and odds ratios for the occurrence of perioperative adverse events were then calculated from logistic regression after controlling for clinically relevant cofactors. RESULTS: Among the 1102 patients, the prevalence of high NC was 24.3%. NC was positively correlated with age and other anthropometric parameters. Children with high NC were more likely to be loud snorers and have a history of bronchial asthma, hypertension, and type 2 diabetes. Composite adverse airway events were more frequent in children with a large NC. There was no significant association between high NC and difficult laryngoscopy in our study population. CONCLUSIONS: NC was positively correlated with other indices of obesity in children, and large NC (indicative of central obesity) was associated with some adverse respiratory events in these children undergoing noncardiac surgery. NC could be a useful clinical screening tool for the occurrence of perioperative adverse respiratory events in children.

Nursing surveillance moderates the relationship between staffing levels and pediatric postoperative serious adverse events: A nested case-control study

BACKGROUND Insufficient monitoring, surveillance, and nurse staffing levels are system factors that may contribute to serious adverse events and deterioration in hospitalized patients. Limited data have examined the relationship between these factors and postoperative outcomes, particularly in the pediatric setting. OBJECTIVES This retrospective, case-control study examined the relationship between surveillance, staffing, and serious adverse events in children on general care postoperative units. The following hypotheses were tested: (1) the relationship between patient factors and surveillance would be moderated by staffing (i.e., registered nurse hours per patient per shift), and (2) the relationship between staffing and serious adverse events would be mediated by surveillance. METHODS With institutional review board approval, children with serious adverse events on a general care unit were identified from institutional event databases, and procedure-matched controls were randomly selected from surgical lists. Demographics, co-morbidities, perioperative information, frequency of postoperative monitoring and assessments (i.e., surveillance), and registered nurse hours per patient per shift (i.e., staffing) were recorded. Regression models were used to test the hypotheses. RESULTS The Event Group included 98 children and the Control Group, 158. Registered nurse hours per patient per shift were lower for the Event Group (2.99 ± 0.59) compared to Controls (3.38 ± 1.23, p=0.002). The number of assessments/shift was higher for the Event Group (4.27 ± 2.8) compared to Controls (2.85 ± 1.9; p<0.001), as was use of continuous pulse oximetry (78% vs. 58%, respectively; p=0.001). Staffing moderated the relationship between comorbidity and surveillance (r(2)=0.192, p<0.001) revealing a significant relationship at lower staffing but not higher. Surveillance did not mediate the relationship between staffing and events, but moderated it (r(2)=0.435; p<0.001) showing no relationship at lower surveillance levels. CONCLUSIONS Nurse staffing levels moderated the relationship between patient factors and surveillance demonstrating that this association is dependent on staffing levels. The association between staffing and adverse outcomes was dependent on the level of surveillance. Increased surveillance based on recognition of deterioration may have facilitated rescue of children in this setting, even during times of lower staffing.

The incidence of intraoperative awareness in children: childhood awareness and recall evaluation.

BACKGROUND: There is a considerable discrepancy between the reported incidences of awareness under anesthesia in children (0.2%–2.7%). In this prospective, observational, cohort study we evaluated 1) the incidence of awareness during general anesthesia in children across three settings, 2) factors contributing to awareness, and 3) short-term psychological effects of awareness. METHODS: Children (aged 5–15 yr) who underwent general anesthesia were included, and all perioperative data including anesthetic drugs were collected prospectively. Children were interviewed three times postoperatively using a semistructured questionnaire. All cases of possible or probable awareness were discussed with the childs care providers to confirm or refute the memories. Internal consensus among investigators across sites was reached, and these cases and a random selection of others were reviewed by three external reviewers. For the purpose of this study, possible/probable awareness was defined as cases with agreement between the internal consensus and at least two of the three external reviewers. RESULTS: One thousand seven hundred eighty-four children completed at least one interview. Thirty-two cases were coded as possible or probable awareness by at least one entity (i.e., either the internal consensus or one of the external reviewers). Fourteen of these cases met the definition for possible/probable awareness, making the incidence of awareness 0.8%. Six of the 14 children with awareness (43%) remembered feeling scared during their surgery and three (21%) reported hurting. Two children in this group (14%) said they would feel worse if they had to have surgery again, which was not significantly different from reports of children with no recall (15%). None of the children with awareness required psychological follow-up. Endoscopic procedures were associated with a higher risk for awareness (relative risk = 4.5 [confidence interval 1.5–13.6]). CONCLUSIONS: Although 0.8% of children experienced possible/probable awareness in this study, none experienced short-term psychological distress.

Glycopyrrolate does not reduce the incidence of perioperative adverse events in children with upper respiratory tract infections.

Two recent studies have identified copious secretions as an independent risk factor for perioperative adverse events in children who present for elective surgery in the presence of an upper respiratory tract infection (URI). We designed this study, therefore, to determine whether the administration of the anticholinergic drug, glycopyrrolate, to children with URIs would reduce the incidence of adverse perioperative respiratory events. One hundred thirty children (1 mo to 18 yr of age) who presented for elective surgery with a URI were randomized to receive either 0.01 mg/kg glycopyrrolate or placebo and were followed for the appearance and severity of any perioperative respiratory adverse events. The two groups were similar with respect to demographics, presenting URI symptoms, anesthetic management, and surgical procedure. In the intention-to-treat analysis, there were no statistical differences in the incidence or severity of perioperative respiratory adverse events between the glycopyrrolate and placebo groups (45.2% vs 37.5% respectively, P = NS). Furthermore, there were no differences in outcome between the two groups when children with congestion and secretions were analyzed separately (45.0% vs 37.0%, respectively). However, compared with the placebo group, children in the glycopyrrolate group had significantly shorter discharge times (83.9 min vs 111.4 min, P = 0.024), and significantly less postoperative nausea and vomiting (10.7% vs 33.3%, P = 0.005). These results suggest that glycopyrrolate, administered after induction of anesthesia to children with URIs, does not reduce the incidence of perioperative respiratory adverse events, and thus may not be clinically indicated for routine use in this population.