Craig Brideau

Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering microscopy using photonic crystal fiber with two closely lying zero dispersion wavelengths

We demonstrate coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy of lipid-rich structures using a single unamplified femtosecond Ti:sapphire laser and a photonic crystal fiber (PCF) with two closely lying zero dispersion wavelengths (ZDW) for the Stokes source. The primary enabling factor for the fast data acquisition (84 micros per pixel) in the proof-of-principle CARS images, is the low noise supercontinuum (SC) generated in this type of PCF, in contrast to SC generated in a PCF with one ZDW. The dependence of the Stokes pulse on average input power, pump wavelength, pulse duration and polarization is experimentally characterized. We show that it is possible to control the spectral shape of the SC by tuning the pump wavelength of the input pulse and the consequence for CARS microscopy is discussed.

Miniaturized multimodal CARS microscope based on MEMS scanning and a single laser source.

We demonstrate a novel miniaturized multimodal coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscope based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) scanning mirrors and custom miniature optics. A single Ti:sapphire femtosecond pulsed laser is used as the light source to produce the CARS, two photon excitation fluorescence (TPEF) and second harmonic generation (SHG) images using this miniaturized microscope. The high resolution and distortion-free images obtained from various samples such as a USAF target, fluorescent and polystyrene microspheres and biological tissue successfully demonstrate proof of concept, and pave the path towards future integration of parts into a handheld multimodal CARS probe for non- or minimally-invasive in vivo imaging.

Fluorescent Phosphorus Dendrimer as a Spectral Nanosensor for Macrophage Polarization and Fate Tracking in Spinal Cord Injury

Dendrimers and dendriplexes, highly branched synthetic macromolecules, have gained popularity as new tools for a variety of nanomedicine strategies due to their unique structure and properties. We show that fluorescent phosphorus dendrimers are well retained by bone marrow-derived macrophages and exhibit robust spectral shift in its emission in response to polarization conditions. Fluorescence properties of this marker can also assist in identifying macrophage presence and phenotype status at different time points after spinal cord injury. Potential use of a single dendrimer compound as a drug/siRNA carrier and phenotype-specific cell tracer offers new avenues for enhanced cell therapies combined with monitoring of cell fate and function in spinal cord injury.

Portable, miniaturized, fibre delivered, multimodal CARS exoscope

We demonstrate for the first time, a portable multimodal coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering microscope (exoscope) for minimally invasive in-vivo imaging of tissues. This device is based around a micro-electromechanical system scanning mirror and miniaturized optics with light delivery accomplished by a photonic crystal fibre. A single Ti:sapphire femtosecond pulsed laser is used as the light source to produce CARS, two photon excitation fluorescence and second harmonic generation images. The high resolution and distortion-free images obtained from various resolution and bio-samples, particularly in backward direction (epi) successfully demonstrate proof of concept, and pave the path towards future non or minimally-invasive in vivo imaging.

Functional ionotropic glutamate receptors on peripheral axons and myelin

Introduction: Neurotransmitter‐dependent signaling is traditionally restricted to axon terminals. However, receptors are present on myelinating glia, suggesting that chemical transmission may also occur along axons. Methods: Confocal microscopy and Ca2+‐imaging using an axonally expressed FRET‐based reporter was used to measure Ca2+ changes and morphological alterations in myelin in response to stimulation of glutamate receptors. Results: Activation of α‐amino‐3‐hydroxy‐5‐methyl‐4‐isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) or N‐methyl‐D‐aspartate (NMDA) receptors induced a Ca2+ increase in axon cylinders. However, only the latter caused structural alterations in axons, despite similar Ca2+ increases. Myelin morphology was significantly altered by NMDA receptor activation, but not by AMPA receptors. Cu2+ ions influenced the NMDA receptor‐dependent response, suggesting that this metal modulates axonal receptors. Glutamate increased ribosomal signal in Schwann cell cytoplasm. Conclusions: Axon cylinders and myelin of peripheral nervous system axons respond to glutamate, with a consequence being an increase in Schwann cell ribosomes. This may have implications for nerve pathology and regeneration. Muscle Nerve 54: 451–459, 2016

High-resolution fluorescence microscopy of myelin without exogenous probes.

Myelin is a critical element of the central and peripheral nervous systems of all higher vertebrates. Any disturbance in the integrity of the myelin sheath interferes with the axons ability to conduct action potentials. Thus, the study of myelin structure and biochemistry is critically important. Accurate and even staining of myelin is often difficult because of its lipid-rich nature and multiple tight membrane wraps, hindering penetration of immunoprobes. Here we show a method of visualizing myelin that is fast, inexpensive and reliable using the cross-linking fixative glutaraldehyde that produces strong, broad-spectrum auto-fluorescence in fixed tissue. Traditionally, effort is generally aimed at eliminating this auto-fluorescence. However, we show that this intrinsic signal, which is very photostable and particularly strong in glutaraldehyde-fixed myelin, can be exploited to visualize this structure to produce very detailed images of myelin morphology. We imaged fixed rodent tissues from the central and peripheral nervous systems using spectral confocal microscopy to acquire high-resolution 3-dimensional images spanning the visual range of wavelengths (400-750 nm). Mathematical post-processing allows accurate and unequivocal separation of broadband auto-fluorescence from exogenous fluorescent probes such as DAPI and fluorescently-tagged secondary antibodies. We additionally show the feasibility of immunohistochemistry with antigen retrieval, which allows co-localization of proteins of interest together with detailed myelin morphology. The lysolecithin model of de- and remyelination is shown as an example of a practical application of this technique, which can be routinely applied when high-resolution microscopy of central or peripheral myelinated tracts is required.

Axonal and myelinic pathology in 5xFAD Alzheimer’s mouse spinal cord

As an extension of the brain, the spinal cord has unique properties which could allow us to gain a better understanding of CNS pathology. The brain and cord share the same cellular components, yet the latter is simpler in cytoarchitecture and connectivity. In Alzheimer’s research, virtually all focus is on brain pathology, however it has been shown that transgenic Alzheimer’s mouse models accumulate beta amyloid plaques in spinal cord, suggesting that the cord possesses the same molecular machinery and conditions for plaque formation. Here we report a spatial-temporal map of plaque load in 5xFAD mouse spinal cord. We found that plaques started to appear at 11 weeks, then exhibited a time dependent increase and differential distribution along the cord. More plaques were found in cervical than other spinal levels at all time points examined. Despite heavy plaque load at 6 months, the number of cervical motor neurons in 5xFAD mice is comparable to wild type littermates. On detailed microscopic examination, fine beta amyloid-containing and beta sheet-rich thread-like structures were found in the peri-axonal space of many axons. Importantly, these novel structures appear before any plaque deposits are visible in young mice spinal cord and they co-localize with axonal swellings at later stages, suggesting that these thread-like structures might represent the initial stages of plaque formation, and could play a role in axonal damage. Additionally, we were able to demonstrate increasing myelinopathy in aged 5xFAD mouse spinal cord using the lipid probe Nile Red with high resolution. Collectively, we found significant amyloid pathology in grey and white matter of the 5xFAD mouse spinal cord which indicates that this structure maybe a useful platform to study mechanisms of Alzheimer’s pathology and disease progression.

Automated control of optical polarization for nonlinear microscopy

Laser-scanning non-linear optical techniques such as multi-photon fluorescence excitation microscopy (MPM), Second/ Third Harmonic Generation (SHG/THG), and Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering (CARS) are being utilized in research laboratories worldwide. The efficiencies of these non-linear effects are dependent on the polarization state of the excitation light relative to the orientation of the sample being imaged. In highly ordered anisotropic biological samples this effect can become pronounced and the excitation polarization can have a dramatic impact on imaging experiments. Therefore, controlling the polarization state of the exciting light is important; however this is challenging when the excitation light passes through a complex optical system. In a typical laser-scanning microscope, components such as the dichroic filters, lenses, and even mirrors can alter the polarization state of a laser beam before it reaches the sample. We present an opto-mechanical solution to compensate for the polarization effects of an optical path, and to precisely program the polarization state of the exciting laser light. The device and accompanying procedures allow the delivery of precise laser polarization states at constant average power levels to a sample during an imaging experiment.

Broadly tunable high-energy spectrally focused CARS microscopy with chemical specificity and high resolution for biological samples

The current trend in laser sources for Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering (CARS) microscopy consists of picosecond optical parametric oscillators (OPO)s and femtosecond-pumped fiber supercontinuum sources. While both methods are proven CARS performers, restricted wavelength tuning range and low power limit the Raman lines and types of samples that may be practically interrogated. To address these limitations, we present a novel, highly tunable spectrally focused femtosecond Optical Parametric Amplifier (OPA) and microscope system optimized for CARS microscopy. The laser source consists of an amplified ytterbium fiber laser driving a pair of OPAs producing two outputs that produce tunable femtosecond pulses from 650 to 1300nm. Each OPA may be tuned independently of the other over its entire range, allowing the addressing of any arbitrary wavenumber from 0 to 7700 cm-1. Additionally, the complete freedom of tuning allows one beam to be set at the optimal wavelength for a complementary technique, such as twophoton fluorescence or second harmonic, while the second beam is then tuned to the desired wavenumber difference for CARS. The femtosecond pulses are chirped out to the picosecond regime, reducing non-resonant background and providing improved spectral resolution. Typically, OPA systems are limited to kHz repetition rates, making them impractical for imaging applications. In contrast, our OPA system is driven at 1 MHz, providing a sufficient pulse rate for high-resolution imaging at rates of 1-2 frames per second. The 1 MHz rate preserves good pulse energy while reducing average power, thus limiting sample photo damage.

Effects of laser polarization on responses of the fluorescent Ca2+ indicator X-Rhod-1 in neurons and myelin

Abstract. Laser-scanning optical microscopes generally do not control the polarization of the exciting laser field. We show that laser polarization and imaging mode (confocal versus two photon) exert a profound influence on the ability to detect Ca2+ changes in both cultured neurons and living myelin. With two-photon excitation, increasing ellipticity resulted in a ≈50% reduction in resting X-Rhod-1 fluorescence in homogeneous bulk solution, cell cytoplasm, and myelin. In contrast, varying the angle of a linearly polarized laser field only had appreciable effects on dyes that partitioned into myelin in an ordered manner. During injury-induced Ca2+ increases, larger ellipticities resulted in a significantly greater injury-induced signal increase in neurons, and particularly in myelin. Indeed, the traditional method of measuring Ca2+ changes using one-photon confocal mode with linearly polarized continuous wave laser illumination produced no appreciable X-Rhod-1 signal increase in ischemic myelin, compared to a robust ≈50% fluorescence increase with two-photon excitation and optimized ellipticity with the identical injury paradigm. This underscores the differences in one- versus two-photon excitation and, in particular, the under-appreciated effects of laser polarization on the behavior of certain Ca2+ reporters, which may lead to substantial underestimates of the real Ca2+ fluctuations in various cellular compartments.