Craig Harrison

Development of Aerobic Fitness in Young Team Sport Athletes

The importance of a high level of aerobic fitness for team sport players is well known. Previous research suggests that aerobic fitness can be effectively increased in adults using traditional aerobic conditioning methods, including high-intensity interval and moderate-intensity continuous training, or more recent game-based conditioning that involves movement and skill-specific tasks, e.g. small-sided games. However, aerobic fitness training for youth team sport players has received limited attention and is likely to differ from that for adults due to changes in maturation. Given young athletes experience different rates of maturation and technical skill development, the most appropriate aerobic fitness training modes and loading parameters are likely to be specific to the developmental stage of a player. Therefore, we analysed studies that investigated exercise protocols to enhance aerobic fitness in young athletes, relative to growth and maturation, to determine current best practice and limitations. Findings were subsequently used to guide an evidence-based model for aerobic fitness development. During the sampling stage (exploration of multiple sports), regular participation in moderate-intensity aerobic fitness training, integrated into sport-specific drills, activities and skill-based games, is recommended. During the specialisation stage (increased commitment to a chosen sport), high-intensity small-sided games should be prioritised to provide the simultaneous development of aerobic fitness and technical skills. Once players enter the investment stage (pursuit of proficiency in a chosen sport), a combination of small-sided games and high-intensity interval training is recommended.

Quantification of physiological, movement, and technical outputs during a novel small-sided game in young team sport athletes.

Abstract Harrison, CB, Gill, ND, Kinugasa, T, and Kilding, AE. Quantification of physiological, movement, and technical outputs during a novel small-sided game in young team sport athletes. J Strength Cond Res 27(10): 2861–2868, 2013—The aim of this study was to quantify the physiological responses, time-motion characteristics, and technical executions associated with a novel non-sport–specific small-sided game (SSG) in young team sport players. On 6 separate occasions, 12 young male team sport athletes (mean ± SD: age, 13.0 ± 0.3 years; height, 157.4 ± 4.9 cm; body mass, 47.0 ± 5.0 kg; and V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak, 55.1 ± 4.6 ml·kg−1·min−1) completed various “bucketball” SSG formats (i.e., 3 vs. 3, 4 vs. 4, and 6 vs. 6) twice each. Heart rate (HR) was measured during each SSG at 5-second intervals. Time-motion characteristics were measured using global positioning systems. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPEs) were recorded immediately after the SSGs using the Borg scale (RPEs, 6–20). Technical skill executions were measured using a high-speed digital video camera. Analysis revealed a tendency for the 3 vs. 3 games to elicit higher HRs (88.3 ± 4.3) than either 4 vs. 4 (85.9 ± 4.9) or 6 vs. 6 formats (85.9 ± 3.2). Total distance traveled at 13–17.9 km·h−1 was more during 6 vs. 6 than 3 vs. 3 games (very likely substantial true difference, 97%), and total possessions and number of catches, passes, and shots were all higher in 3 vs. 3 compared with 4 vs. 4 and 6 vs. 6 games. There was no difference in RPE between the game formats. The results of this study indicate that 3 vs. 3 non-sport–specific SSGs provide higher stimulus for aerobic fitness adaptation and technical improvement than 4 vs. 4 and 6 vs. 6 formats, and their use for training young team sport athletes is recommended.

Small-sided games for young athletes: is game specificity influential?

Abstract This study aimed to quantify and compare the physiological, physical and technical demands of a sport-specific and non-sport-specific small-sided game (SSG) in young athletes. Ten male soccer players (mean ± SD: age, 13.0 ± 0.3 years, O2peak, 54.4 ± 4.9 ml · kg−1 · min−1) completed 3 vs. 3 and 6 vs. 6 soccer and “bucketball” SSGs twice. Games lasted for 16 min and were performed in a randomised order, at least 48 h apart. Movement patterns and heart rate were measured using 4 Hz global positioning systems. Technical skill executions were assessed by video analysis and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) using the Borg scale (RPEs, 6–20). Total distance (4.9 ± 4.1% and 8.3 ± 6.6%), distance at 7–12.9 km · h−1 (14.5 ± 12.5% and 14.9 ± 16.1%), total possessions (14.7 ± 18.0% and 12.9 ± 18.9%) and percentage of successful passes (24.1 ± 11.7% and 30.1 ± 17.6%) were higher for bucketball compared to soccer (3 vs. 3 and 6 vs. 6, respectively). Total distance at 13–17.9 km · h−1 was higher for 6 vs. 6 than 3 vs. 3 bucketball (32.3 ± 21.2%). There was likely substantial difference for %HRpeak (89.5 ± 3.1 vs. 87.4 ± 2.8 b · min−1) and time above 90% HRpeak (570 ± 288 s vs. 361 ± 288 s) between bucketball and soccer (3 vs. 3 and 6 vs. 6, respectively). Young players travelled further at higher overall speeds, experienced higher physiological workloads and performed more successful technical executions during the non-sport-specific SSG.

A New Direction to Athletic Performance: Understanding the Acute and Longitudinal Responses to Backward Running

Backward running (BR) is a form of locomotion that occurs in short bursts during many overground field and court sports. It has also traditionally been used in clinical settings as a method to rehabilitate lower body injuries. Comparisons between BR and forward running (FR) have led to the discovery that both may be generated by the same neural circuitry. Comparisons of the acute responses to FR reveal that BR is characterised by a smaller ratio of braking to propulsive forces, increased step frequency, decreased step length, increased muscle activity and reliance on isometric and concentric muscle actions. These biomechanical differences have been critical in informing recent scientific explorations which have discovered that BR can be used as a method for reducing injury and improving a variety of physical attributes deemed advantageous to sports performance. This includes improved lower body strength and power, decreased injury prevalence and improvements in change of direction performance following BR training. The current findings from research help improve our understanding of BR biomechanics and provide evidence which supports BR as a useful method to improve athlete performance. However, further acute and longitudinal research is needed to better understand the utility of BR in athletic performance programs.

Prescribing Target Running Intensities for High-School Athletes: Can Forward and Backward Running Performance Be Autoregulated?

Target running intensities are prescribed to enhance sprint-running performance and progress injured athletes back into competition, yet is unknown whether running speed can be achieved using autoregulation. This study investigated the consistency of running intensities in adolescent athletes using autoregulation to self-select velocity. Thirty-four boys performed 20 m forward running (FR) and backward running (BR) trials at slow, moderate and fast intensities (40–55%, 60–75% and +90% maximum effort, respectively) on three occasions. Absolute and relative consistency was assessed using the coefficient of variation (CV) and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). Systematic changes in 10 and 20 m performance were identified between trials 1–2 for moderate and fast BR (p ≤ 0.01) and during moderate BR over 20 m across trials 2–3 (p ≤ 0.05). However, comparisons between trials 2–3 resulted in low typical percentage error (CV ≤ 4.3%) and very good to excellent relative consistency (ICC ≥ 0.87) for all running speeds and directions. Despite FR being significantly (p ≤ 0.01) faster than BR at slow (26%), moderate (28%) and fast intensities (26%), consistency was similar in both running directions and strongest at the fastest speeds. Following appropriate familiarization, youth athletes may use autoregulation to self-select prescribed FR and BR target running intensities.

Integrating models of long-term athletic development to maximize the physical development of youth:

Long-term athletic development is important to prepare youth for sport and an active lifestyle. Several models have provided general frameworks for long-term athletic development from different perspectives that consider factors such as when to sample and specialize and what physical qualities to train and when. More recently, more specific models of long-term athletic development have emerged that focus on both specific modes of training and specific fitness qualities. This includes models focused on the development of speed, agility, power, and endurance as well as models devoted to resistance training, plyometric training, and weightlifting. These models incorporate factors such as technical competency, developmental stage, maturation, and training age to describe the long-term progression of athletic development. A challenge for the coach is to understand how these models inform one another and how they integrate into practice to allow the use of multiple modes of training to develop multiple components of fitness simultaneously throughout childhood and adolescence. This review will examine how information from various models can be integrated to maximize the physical long-term athletic development of youth.

Modifying games for improved aerobic fitness and skill acquisition in youth

ABSTRACT BY COMBINING TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL GAME COMPONENTS WITH APPROPRIATE PHYSICAL LOADING, MODIFIED GAMES CAN PROVIDE AN IDEAL ENVIRONMENT FOR YOUNG ATHLETES TO DEVELOP AEROBIC FITNESS, WHILE AT THE SAME TIME ACCUMULATE PRECIOUS HOURS OF TECHNICAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT. FURTHERMORE, MODIFIED GAMES PROVIDE AN OPPORTUNITY FOR PLAYERS TO DEVELOP THEIR DECISION-MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS UNDER STRESSFUL PHYSICAL LOADS, WHICH ARE CRITICAL FACTORS IN SUCCESSFUL LONG-TERM PLAYER DEVELOPMENT. THIS ARTICLE DISCUSSES THOSE CONSTRAINTS BELIEVED IMPORTANT IN OPTIMIZING AEROBIC FITNESS AND SKILL ACQUISITION IN YOUTH USING A MODIFIED GAMES APPROACH. FOR A VIDEO ABSTRACT DESCRIBING THIS ISSUE, SEE VIDEO, SUPPLEMENTAL DIGITAL CONTENT 1, HTTP://LINKS.LWW.COM/SCJ/A203.