Cynthia McPherson Frantz

Why Is Nature Beneficial?: The Role of Connectedness to Nature

Three studies examine the effects of exposure to nature on positive affect and ability to reflect on a life problem. Participants spent 15 min walking in a natural setting (Studies 1, 2, & 3), an urban setting (Study 1), or watching videos of natural and urban settings (Studies 2 & 3). In all three studies, exposure to nature increased connectedness to nature, attentional capacity, positive emotions, and ability to reflect on a life problem; these effects are more dramatic for actual nature than for virtual nature. Mediational analyses indicate that the positive effects of exposure to nature are partially mediated by increases in connectedness to nature and are not mediated by increases in attentional capacity. The discussion focuses on the mechanisms that underlie the exposure to nature/well-being effects.

A Threat in the Computer: The Race Implicit Association Test as a Stereotype Threat Experience

Three experiments test whether the threat of appearing racist leads White participants to perform worse on the race Implicit Association Test (IAT) and whether self-affirmation can protect from this threat. Experiments 1 and 2 suggest that White participants show a stereotype threat effect when completing the race IAT, leading to stronger pro-White scores when the test is believed to be diagnostic of racism. This effect increases for domain-identified (highly motivated to control prejudice) participants (Experiment 2). In Experiment 3, self-affirmation inoculates participants against stereotype threat while taking the race IAT. These findings have methodological implications for use of the race IAT and theoretical implications concerning the malleability of automatic prejudice and the potential interpersonal effects of the fear of appearing racist.

Electricity and Water Conservation on College and University Campuses in Response to National Competitions among Dormitories: Quantifying Relationships between Behavior, Conservation Strategies and Psychological Metrics

“Campus Conservation Nationals” (CCN) is a recurring, nation-wide electricity and water-use reduction competition among dormitories on college campuses. We conducted a two year empirical study of the competition’s effects on resource consumption and the relationship between conservation, use of web technology and various psychological measures. Significant reductions in electricity and water use occurred during the two CCN competitions examined (n = 105,000 and 197,000 participating dorm residents respectively). In 2010, overall reductions during the competition were 4% for electricity and 6% for water. The top 10% of dorms achieved 28% and 36% reductions in electricity and water respectively. Participation was larger in 2012 and reductions were slightly smaller (i.e. 3% electricity). The fact that no seasonal pattern in electricity use was evident during non-competition periods suggests that results are attributable to the competition. Post competition resource use data collected in 2012 indicates that conservation behavior was sustained beyond the competition. Surveys were used to assess psychological and behavioral responses (n = 2,900 and 2,600 in 2010 and 2012 respectively). Electricity reductions were significantly correlated with: web visitation, specific conservation behaviors, awareness of the competition, motivation and sense of empowerment. However, participants were significantly more motivated than empowered. Perceived benefits of conservation were skewed towards global and future concerns while perceived barriers tended to be local. Results also suggest that competitions may be useful for “preaching beyond the choir”–engaging those who might lack prior intrinsic or political motivation. Although college life is distinct, certain conclusions related to competitions, self-efficacy, and motivation and social norms likely extend to other residential settings.

An examination of gender differences in the American Fisheries Society peer-review process

This study investigated the possibility of gender differences in outcomes throughout the peer review process of American Fisheries Society (AFS) journals. For each manuscript submitted to four AFS journals between January 2003 and December 2010, we collated information regarding the gender and nationality of authors, gender of associate editor, gender of reviewers, reviewer recommendations, associate editors decision, and publication status of the manuscript. We used hierarchical linear modeling to test for differences in manuscript decision outcomes associated with author, reviewer, and associate editor gender. Gender differences were present at some but not every stage of the review process and were not equal among the four journals. Although there was a small gender difference in decision outcomes, we found no evidence of bias in editors’ and reviewers’ recommendations. Our results support the conclusion that the current single-blind review system does not result in bias against female authors within ...

Framing the Question of Survival : Psychological Insights and Limitations

The way one frames a question has a huge impact on the answer at which one arrives. Framing a question properly becomes all the more important when facing an issue as weighty as global survival. As David Orr points out, the question of how to build a decent and sustainable world may ultimately be framed as a psychological one. If the present problem of survival is ultimately due to the personal values and highly consumptive lifestyle of first-world nations, then how we view ourselves and others, our relationship to nature, and the meaning of our lives are psychological questions that are critical for our survival as a species. In addition, as Orr points out, if owing to resource scarcity the future environmental changes will only widen the interpersonal, social, and cultural fissures that already exist, then psychological knowledge related to causes, prevention, and amelioration of social conflict will also play a critical role in the future. Psychologists have studied these negative forms of thought and action for decades. Related to these questions, psychology has much to offer, and framing the climate change challenges of the present and future as ultimately psychological ones may provide insights and answers that would not be arrived at through other frames (e.g., as technological or policy problems). Although Orr touches on many relevant areas of psychology in his article, he fails to mention psychological research on helping behavior. Hundreds of studies have been conducted to determine the conditions under which people are most likely to help others (cf. Latane & Darley 1970; Piliavin et al. 1981; Fiske 2004). This literature is a largely untapped well of potential insights into how to foster helping behavior for the environment. Our own research has focused on one determinant of helping behavior: the importance of a sense of “we-ness” between the helper and the person in need. Studies consistently show that the closer the relationship between 2 people, the more willing they are to help each other (Duval et al. 1979; Hornstein 1982; Batson 2001; Miller et al. 2001; Batson & Powell 2003). Inspired by the work of Aldo Leopold (1949), we have operationalized and measured the closeness of people’s relationship not to social others, but to the natural world—what we refer to as their connectedness to nature (Mayer & Frantz 2004). Parallel to studies of helping behavior for other humans, when people have a sense of kinship to the natural world, they are more likely to experience concern for the environment and engage in pro-environmental acts (Mayer & Frantz 2004; Trostle 2008). In fact, connectedness to nature is a far better predictor of environmental concern and pro-environmental action than knowledge of environmental problems (Mayer & Frantz 2004). To appreciate the significance of this, take a moment to perform the following thought experiment. Imagine a person who needs help. Perhaps the person needs money. Then imagine the face of an anonymous person and also of someone with whom you have an emotional connection. Consider the decision of whether to act to help this person. Are you more likely to help an anonymous person with whom you have no relationship or a person with whom you have an emotional connection? Put this way the answer seems obvious. Nevertheless, extending this reasoning to pro-environmental action, decades of environmental education and information campaigns have placed a greater emphasis on knowledge than on increasing individuals’ feelings of connectedness to nature. Clearly, our work points out that environmental education programs or information campaigns, whether directed at younger or older individuals, may miss the mark of inducing people to act in more environmentally friendly ways if they rely solely on knowledge of what is happening to the environment in terms of CO2 or warming trends (see also Kals et al. 1999). In short, psychologists have many insights to offer as our society struggles to respond to challenges of climate change. Moreover, the field of psychology has a long and proud history of using science to inform public policy. Psychologists have provided amicus briefs and expert testimony in landmark cases on desegregation (Brown v. Board of Education in 1954), affirmative action (Grutter v. Bollinger et al. in 2003), and gender discrimination (Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins in 1989). Using scientific

The earth is our home: systemic metaphors to redefine our relationship with nature

Climate change is one of the most compelling challenges for science communication today. Societal reforms are necessary to reduce the risks posed by a changing climate, yet many people fail to recognize climate change as a serious issue. Unfortunately, the accumulation of scientific data, in itself, has failed to compel the general public on the urgent need for pro-environmental policy action. We argue that certain metaphors for the human-environment relationship can lead people to adopt a more nuanced and responsible conception of their place in the natural world. In two studies, we tested properties of multiple metaphors with the general public (study 1) and experts on climate change (study 2). The metaphor “the earth is our home” resonated with climate experts as well as diverse subpopulations of the general public, including conservatives and climate-change deniers.

Changing Energy Behavior Through Community Based Social Marketing

Achieving carbon neutrality on college and university campuses will require more than just new technologies. Behavior change programs are a highly cost effective method of reducing costs and carbon emissions; however most facilities and sustainability offices lack training in the social science of behavior change. This paper introduces readers to Community Based Social Marketing (CBSM), a systematic, empirically grounded approach to behavior change. A team of faculty, staff, and students used CBSM to develop the behavioral component of Oberlin College’s Climate Action Plan—targeted to eliminate 10–15 % of the College’s carbon emissions. After analyzing the College’s Greenhouse Gas Inventory we identified a short list of behaviors associated with significant carbon emissions to target for further study. Quantitative surveys, qualitative focus groups, and field observations were used to collect baseline data on these behaviors, as well as to identify the key barriers to changing them. Two behaviors were targeted for initial intervention: turning off lights in unused classrooms, and using cold water for washing laundry. We developed interventions using insights from our survey results as well as insights from behavior change research, and conducted two field studies to evaluate their effectiveness. This paper concludes with a discussion of lessons learned and suggestions for the implementation of CBSM research programs at other institutions. The approach described here is replicable at other institutions. It also provides students with an engaging real world context in which to learn and practice basic research skills, thus furthering a core curricular goal of higher education.