D. E. Ullrey

Digestible and metabolizable energy requirements for winter maintenance of Michigan white-tailed does.

Eighteen pregnant white-tailed does (Odocoileus virginianus) were assigned to 6 trios on the basis of weight. They were penned individually out-of-doors from February S to April 9, 1969, and were fed a pelleted diet with a gross energy density of 4.20 keal/g and a crude protein percentage of 17.6. One member of each trio received the diet ad libitum; the second and third members received 75 and 50 percent of this amount, respectively. A subsequent l-week adjustment plus 1-week fecal and urine collection in metabolism cages was used to estimate the apparent digestible and metabolizable nutrient content of the diet. A linear regression of feed intake with average daily body weight gain or loss provided the basis for estimating maintenance energy requirements at mean weekly ambient temperatures ranging from 1.1 to -9.S C. The average estimated daily maintenance requirement for the 9-week period was 158 keal of apparently digestible energy and 131 keal of metabolizable energy per kg BW0 76. The following study was conducted to confirrn and extend our previous findings ( Ullrey et al. 1969 ) concerned with digestible energy needs for maintenance of body weight in captive adult white-tailed does during a Michigan winter. The development of an improved metabolism unit permitted the quantitative collection of both urine and feces and consequent calculation of metabolizable energy needs. The diet used was designed specifically for deer, and the formulation was based, in part, on deer research. We wish to acknowledge the assistance of Hazel Harte, Kay Cotton, Karen Jones, and Janice Mercer in performing laboratory analyses, and of E. H. Cunningham, F. L. Shippy, J. R. Terry, and R. E. Morrill for animal care. 1 Published with the approval of the Director of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station as Journal Article No. 5067. Supported by the Michigan Department of Natural Resources and PittmanRobertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project Michigan W-95-R-ll. Research conducted at the Houghton Lake Wildlife Research Station. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Eighteen pregnant white-tailed does were assigned to 6 trios on the basis of weight so that the weights of the deer within a trio were as similar as possible. The heaviest individual deer within a trio was initially no more than 10 percent heavier than the lightest except for Trio 5 where there was a 19 percent difference. The mean body weights ( + SE ) for the deer in Trios 1 through 6, respectively, were 68.0 + 1.3, 64.0 + 1.7, 56.9 + 1.2, 57.3 + 1.2, 57.4 + 3.1, and49.7+1.3kg. All deer were 2.5 or 3.5 years old and had been raised in captivity from birth. They were penned individually out-ofdoors in an area 4.5 x 9 m. Protection from the weather was afforded by snow fence on two adjacent sides of the pen and a small roofed shelter. The other fences sere of

Effect of dietary fiber concentration on apparent digestibility and digesta passage in non‐human primates. II. Hindgut‐ and foregut‐fermenting folivores

Two test diets with different acid detergent fiber (ADF) concentrations (15% ADF, 30% ADF) were fed to seven adult hindgut- and seven adult foregut-fermenting primates. Apparent digestibilities (%) of dietary dry matter (DM), gross energy (GE), and fiber components (neutral detergent fiber [NDF], ADF, hemicellulose [HC], and cellulose [C]) were measured. Rates of digesta transit (TT1) and retention (RGIT) times were assessed using acetate beads, Co-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and Cr-mordanted fiber as markers. Apparent digestibilities (%) of components of the 15ADF and 30ADF diets, respectively, by hindgut versus foregut fermenters were 69.3 and 61.7 versus 81.2 and 76.7 for DM, 68.5 and 61.5 versus 80.9 and 75.6 for GE, and 44.8 and 47.4 versus 77.1 and 74.7 for NDF. No significant differences in TT1 or RGIT between dietary treatments or markers were detected. The role of plant fiber in maintaining the health and normal function of the gastrointestinal tract in captive leaf-eating primates is discussed. Zoo Biol 18:537–549, 1999.

Formulated Diets versus Seed Mixtures for Psittacines

Psittacines are often classified as seed eaters despite studies that have established great diversity in food habits in the wild. While seeds are consumed, so are flowers, buds, leaves, fruits and cambium. Some psittacines consume part of greater than 80 species of grasses, forbs, shrubs and trees. In addition, insects may be important. Although there are few controlled studies of the requirements of psittacines, it is probable that most nutrient needs are comparable to those of domesticated precocial birds that have been thoroughly studied. Commercial seed mixes for psittacines commonly contain corn, sunflower, safflower, pumpkin and squash seeds, wheat, peanuts, millet, oat groats and buckwheat, although other seeds may be present. Because hulls/shells comprise 18-69% of these seeds and they are removed before swallowing, a significant proportion of typical seed mixtures is waste. Some of the seeds also are very high in fat and promote obesity. Common nutrient deficiencies of decorticated seeds include lysine, calcium, available phosphorus, sodium, manganese, zinc, iron, iodine, selenium, vitamins A, D, E and K, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, available niacin, vitamin B-12 and choline. Attempts to correct these deficiencies by incorporating pellets into seed mixes are usually thwarted by rejection of the pellets and disproportionate consumption of items that are more highly favored. An extruded diet formulated to meet the projected nutrient needs of psittacines was fed with fruits and vegetables to eight species of psittacines for 1 y. Fledging percentage was increased to 90% from the 66% observed during the previous 2 y when these psittacines were fed seeds, fruits and vegetables. Although this extruded diet was well accepted in a mixture of fruits and vegetables and met nutrient needs, analyses have shown that not all commercial formulated diets are of equal merit.

Digestibility of cedar and aspen browse for the white-tailed deer.

Fourteen pregnant white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), 2-5 years old, were used to study the digestibility of browse from northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis) and from large-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata). Consumption of cedar exceeded consumption of aspen three to seven times and weight loss was appreciably more in the latter group. The apparent digestibility of the dry matter, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and gross energy of cedar generally exceeded the corresponding values for aspen. Cellular hematology differences between treatments were not significant, but total serum protein concentrations declined with time in both groups. The rumen liquor of aspen-fed deer had a higher concentration of ammonia nitrogen, expressed as a percent of total nitrogen, and a lower concentration of butyric, propionic, and acetic acids. White-tailed deer seek the security of yards during the depth of Michigans winter when the temperatures are low and snow is deep. These yards are frequently low areas where northern white cedar offers protec- tion and food to deer tall enough to reach it. Some yearlings and numerous fawns are unable to do so, for many years of over-

Body composition and condition evaluation of white-tailed deer fawns

Sixteen white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) fawns were captured between November and April 1984-1986 near Chicago, Illinois, to evaluate relationships between body composition and condition indices. Body fat (bled, ingesta-free basis) of the fawns ranged from 2.3 to 48.9%, dry-matter basis. Of 6 morphometric indices, chest girth had the highest correlations with body mass, gross energy, and fat. Of 45 postmortem indices, carcass mass and composition, viscera mass and composition. Kistner score, kidney fat mass, and gastrocnemius protein ahd the highest correlations with body mass and composition. Kidney fat indices, kidney fat mass, and black fat thickness were related to body fat concentration by logarithmic functions. Kistner score and gastrocnemius fat concentration were each linearly related to body fat concentration. Femur marrow fat and mandible marrow fat concentrations were each related to the negative inverse of body fat concentration. Serum triiodothyronine had the closest relationships with body energy content and body fat concentration of the 11 blood and serum constituents were analyzed. Multiple regression analysis indicated that body gross energy content could best be predicted in live fawns by a combination of live mass and triiodothyronine and postmortem by a combination of viscera mass and live mass or gastrocnemius fat mass, kidney fat mass and kidney mass, or gastrocnemius fat mass and liver mass

Effect of dietary fiber concentration on apparent digestibility and digesta passage in non-human primates. I. Ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegataandV. v. rubra)

Two test diets with different fiber concentrations (15% acid detergent fiber [ADF], 30% ADF) were fed to five adult female ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata). Apparent digestibility (%) of dry matter (DM), gross energy (GE), and fiber components (neutral detergent fiber [NDF], ADF, hemicellulose [HC], and cellulose [C]) were measured. Rates of digesta transit (TT1) and retention time (RGIT) were assessed using acetate beads, Co-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid and Cr-mordanted fiber. Apparent digestibilities (%) of components of the 15ADF and 30ADF diets, respectively, were 51.0 and 41.7 for DM, 47.0 and 39.7 for GE, and 20.4 and 20.7 for NDF. TT1 was approximately 2.7 hours. RGIT was 3.8 hours. No differences in TT1 or RGIT between dietary treatments or marker types were detected. Results of this study support anecdotal observations that Varecia variegata have a limited capacity to utilize plant cell wall constituents as a significant energy source, when compared with more folivorous prosimans. Zoo Biol 18:529–536, 1999.

Nutrition and feeding of ostriches

Abstract Dietary habits in the wild and gastrointestinal anatomy and function have established that the ostrich is an herbivore. Ostriches are not turkeys, but turkeys may be the best avian model we have from which to predict the ostrichs nutrient needs. To minimize leg abnormalities in ostrich chicks, it may be helpful to restrict weight gain by limiting dietary protein concentrations below those recommended for starting turkeys and by using higher fiber diets. Non-slip surfaces and exercise also are very important. Egg production by ostriches laying a normal annual clutch does not significantly increase the dietary calcium requirement. When egg production is forced by continually removing eggs, clacium requirements should be met by dietary concentrations of 16 g kg −1 . Alternatively, ad libitum access to granulated calcium carbonate or oyster shell could be provided. Until the nutrient requirements of ostriches are better understood, zoos and ostrich farmers with small flocks may find a single life-cycle diet is a rational means to meet nutrient needs and keep feed fresh.

Plasma Vitamin and Mineral Status in Home Parenteral Nutrition Patients

Home parenteral nutrition (HPN) provides long-term nutritional support for persons whose absorptive capacity is compromised by a variety of intestinal malabsorption problems. However, the presence of vitamin and mineral deficiency syndromes that normally would not have time to develop in the hospitalized patient receiving total parenteral nutrition has been reported in patients receiving HPN. This study entails a longitudinal survey of plasma concentrations of vitamins A, E, and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, as well as the minerals zinc, copper, and selenium, in patients receiving HPN. Plasma samples from eight patients who had been on HPN for 1-92 months before the study began were obtained once a month over a 12-month period. The blood was drawn immediately before their evening infusion of TPN in order to approximate fasting plasma nutrient concentrations. Patient values were compared to fasting control values and to published norms. Values for vitamin A, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, and zinc all were within the normal range, and there was no evidence of metabolic bone disease. Plasma vitamin E and copper concentrations exceeded the normal range for most of the 12-month period. Of all of the nutrients studied, only plasma selenium concentrations were consistently in the low-normal to below-normal range. Selenium levels in patients on HPN should be monitored regularly, and supplementation may be necessary if clinical conditions warrant.

PHOSPHORUS REQUIREMENTS OF WEANED WHITE-TAILED DEER FAWNS'

Two experiments, involving 60 fawns of both sexes, were conducted to investigate the quan- titative dietary requirements of phosphorus for growing white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Doe fawns were fed their respective diets from late September or early October to late January or mid- March. Buck fawns received their respective diets from late September or early October to mid-March or mid-July. Dietary calcium concentration was held constant at 0.46 to 0.51 percent. Dietary phos- phorus concentrations were 0.28, 0.37, and 0.45 percent in Experiment 1 and 0.26, 0.35, and 0.44 per- cent in Experiment 2. Measurements were made of weight gain; pes length; rib specific gravity; rib ash; percent calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium in the rib ash; rib strength characteristics; rib his- topathology; serum alkaline phosphatase activity; serum calcium, inorganic phosphorus, and magnesium concentration; antler weight, specific gravity, and percent ash; and percent calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium in the antler ash. Certain sex differences were apparent, but none of these criteria was significantly affected by dietary phosphorus level. It was concluded that, with dietary calcium levels of 0.46 to 0.51 percent, weaned white-tailed deer fawns do not require more than 0.26 percent phosphorus (0.28 percent on a dry basis).

Digestibility and Estimated Metabolizability of Aspen Browse for White-Tailed Deer

Twenty-four pregnant white-tailed does (Odocoileus virgin?arlus) were used to determine the apparent digestibility and to estimate the apparent metabolizability of winter browse from northern white cedar (Thaja occidentalis) and large-toothed aspen (Poptl1us grandidentata). Eight deer were fed cedar fronds; eight were fed aspen shoot tips (4 mm or less in diameter) after inoculation of the rumens with fluid from thc rumen of a wild deer, which, at the time of collection, had been eating balsam fir (Abies balsamea); and eight were fed aspen shoot tips after inoculation of the rumens with 0.85 percent saline. I+he inoculation of the rumens with rumen fluid did not affect aspen intake or its digestibility or metabolizability. Daily browse intake during the period of collection of exereta was 1.16 and 0.30 kg for deer fed cedar and aspen, respectively. The apparent digestibilities of the gross energy of cedar and aspen were 59 and 52 percent, respectively. The percentages of gross energy that were metaholizable ( corrected to zero nitrogen balance ) for cedar and aspen were 46 and 28, respectively. Based on previous estimates of maintenance requirements of adult does during a Michigan winter, 0.91 kg of cedar fronds or 1.36 kg of aspen shoots, of the metabolizability determined in this study, must be consumed per day to preszent more than a 25 percent loss of body weight during a lO0-day wintering period.