Dan Bassett

Gravity anomalies, crustal structure, and seismicity at subduction zones: 1. Seafloor roughness and subducting relief

An ensemble averaging technique is used to remove the long-wavelength topography and gravity field from subduction zones. >200 residual bathymetric and gravimetric anomalies are interpreted within fore arcs, many of which are attributed to the tectonic structure of the subducting plate. The residual-gravimetric expression of subducting fracture zones extends >200 km landward of the trench axis. The bathymetric expression of subducting seamounts with height ≥1 km and area ≥500 km2 (N=36), and aseismic ridges (N>10), is largest near the trench (within 70 km) and above shallow subducting slab depths (SLAB1.0 <17 km). Subducting seamounts are similar in wavelength, amplitude, and morphology to unsubducted seamounts. Morphology, spatial distributions, and reduced levels of seismicity are considered inconsistent with mechanical models proposing wholesale decapitation, and the association of subducting seamounts with large-earthquakes. Subducting aseismic ridges are associated with uplift and steepening of the outer fore arc, a gradual reduction in residual bathymetric expression across the inner fore arc, and a local increase in the width and elevation of the volcanic-arc/orogen. These contrasting expressions reflect the influence of margin-normal variations in rigidity on where and how the upper plate deforms, both to accommodate subducting relief and in response to stresses transmitted across the plate interface. The outer fore arc and arc have lower rigidity due to fracturing and thermal weakening, respectively. Similar associations with complex earthquakes and fault creep suggest aseismic ridge subduction may also be accommodated by the development and evolution of a broad fracture network, the geometrical strength of which may exceed the locking strength of a smooth fault.

Upper-plate controls on co-seismic slip in the 2011 magnitude 9.0 Tohoku-oki earthquake.

The March 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake was only the second giant (moment magnitude Mw ≥ 9.0) earthquake to occur in the last 50 years and is the most recent to be recorded using modern geophysical techniques. Available data place high-resolution constraints on the kinematics of earthquake rupture, which have challenged prior knowledge about how much a fault can slip in a single earthquake and the seismic potential of a partially coupled megathrust interface. But it is not clear what physical or structural characteristics controlled either the rupture extent or the amplitude of slip in this earthquake. Here we use residual topography and gravity anomalies to constrain the geological structure of the overthrusting (upper) plate offshore northeast Japan. These data reveal an abrupt southwest–northeast-striking boundary in upper-plate structure, across which gravity modelling indicates a south-to-north increase in the density of rocks overlying the megathrust of 150–200 kilograms per cubic metre. We suggest that this boundary represents the offshore continuation of the Median Tectonic Line, which onshore juxtaposes geological terranes composed of granite batholiths (in the north) and accretionary complexes (in the south). The megathrust north of the Median Tectonic Line is interseismically locked, has a history of large earthquakes (18 with Mw > 7 since 1896) and produced peak slip exceeding 40 metres in the Tohoku-oki earthquake. In contrast, the megathrust south of this boundary has higher rates of interseismic creep, has not generated an earthquake with MJ > 7 (local magnitude estimated by the Japan Meteorological Agency) since 1923, and experienced relatively minor (if any) co-seismic slip in 2011. We propose that the structure and frictional properties of the overthrusting plate control megathrust coupling and seismogenic behaviour in northeast Japan.

Gravity anomalies, crustal structure, and seismicity at subduction zones: 2. Interrelationships between fore‐arc structure and seismogenic behavior

An ensemble-averaging technique is used to remove the long-wavelength topography and gravity field associated with subduction zones. Short-wavelength residual anomalies are attributed to the tectonic structure of subducting and overthrusting plates. A paired (positive-negative) fore-arc anomaly is observed consisting of a long (>1000 km), linear, trench-parallel ridge landward of the deep-sea-terrace basin. Ridges have amplitudes of 1500–3000 m and 160–240 mGal, wavelengths of 150–200 km, and high gravity anomaly to topography ratios (50–75 mGal km−1). The ridge crests correlate with the downdip limit of coseismic slip and strong interplate coupling and in Cascadia, the updip limit of tremor epicenters. The ridge crest may be interpreted as defining the boundary between the velocity-weakening and seismogenic region of the subduction interface and the downdip frictional transition zone. In Tonga-Kermadec, the Kuril Islands and Chile landward ridges are associated with extinct volcanic arcs. Paired anomalies are attributed to the preferential subduction erosion of the outer fore arc and a spatially varying combination of (a) lower crustal underplating beneath the inner fore arc, (b) the transformation of interseismic strain into permanent geologic strain via faulting, folding, or buckling of the inner fore arc, and (c) the relative trenchward migration of extinct volcanic arcs in regions operating with a net crustal deficit. Along-strike transitions in fore-arc morphology and seismogenic behavior are related to preexisting crustal structure of subducting and overthrusting plates. Fore arcs have the added potential of recording the time-integrated response of the upper plate to subduction processes, and fore-arc structure should be considered in tandem with seismological observations.

Crustal structure of the Kermadec arc from MANGO seismic refraction profiles

Three active-source seismic refraction profiles are integrated with morphological and potential field data to place the first regional constraints on the structure of the Kermadec subduction zone. These observations are used to test contrasting tectonic models for an along-strike transition in margin structure previously known as the 32°S boundary. We use residual bathymetry to constrain the geometry of this boundary and propose the name Central Kermadec Discontinuity (CKD). North of the CKD, the buried Tonga Ridge occupies the forearc with VP 6.5–7.3 km s-1 and residual free-air gravity anomalies constrain its latitudinal extent (north of 30.5°S), width (110 ± 20 km) and strike (~005° south of 25°S). South of the CKD the forearc is structurally homogeneous down-dip with VP 5.7–7.3 km s-1. In the Havre Trough backarc, crustal thickness south of the CKD is 8-9 km, which is up-to 4 km thinner than the northern Havre Trough and at least 1 km thinner than the southern Havre Trough. We suggest that the Eocene arc did not extend along the current length of the Tonga-Kermadec trench. The Eocene arc was originally connected to the Three Kings Ridge and the CKD was likely formed during separation and easterly translation of an Eocene arc substrate during the early Oligocene. We suggest that the first-order crustal thickness variations along the Kermadec arc were inherited from before the Neogene and reflect Mesozoic crustal structure, the Cenozoic evolution of the Tonga-Kermadec-Hikurangi margin and along-strike variations in the duration of arc volcanism.