Dana Crowley Jack

The Silencing the Self Scale: Schemas of Intimacy Associated With Depression in Women:

The Silencing the Self Scale (STSS), derived from a longitudinal study of clinically depressed women, measures specific schemas about how to make and maintain intimacy hypothesized to be associated with depression in women. To assess its psychometric properties, the STSS was administered with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) to three samples of women: college students (n = 63), residents in battered womens shelters (n = 140), and mothers (n = 270) (of 4-month-old infants) who abused cocaine during pregnancy. The STSS had a high degree of internal consistency and test–retest reliability and was significantly correlated with the BDI in all three samples.

UNDERSTANDING WOMEN'S ANGER: A DESCRIPTION OF RELATIONAL PATTERNS

Sixty womens narratives about their anger were coded for elements of anger expression. Their decisions regarding how and where to express anger are most strongly influenced by the anticipated reactions of others. Six patterns of bringing anger into relationships or keeping it out were identified. Women bring anger into relationship: (1) positively and directly, with the goal of removing barriers to relationship; (2) aggressively, with the goal of hurting another; and (3) indirectly, through disguising anger with the goal of remaining safe from interpersonal consequences, using strategies of (a) quiet sabotage, (b) hostile distance, (c) deflection, and (d) loss of control. Women keep anger out of relationship (1) consciously and constructively, choosing to express it in positive ways; (2) explosively expressing anger, but not in the presence of another; and (3) through self-silencing, which ranges from conscious to lessconscious awareness of anger and its suppression. Implications of differing patterns for womens health are discussed.

Reflections on the Silencing the Self Scale and Its Origins.

‘‘Women consider the failure of relationships to be a moral failure,’’ said Carol Gilligan, the year I started doctoral studies at Harvard University. It was 1979, on a brilliant fall day with sun streaming through the tall, leaded glass windows in Longfellow Hall. Gilligan was talking about women’s psychology in her class on Moral Development. Her words struck my mind and heart, giving direction to all my future work. Why did these words stand out so strongly? With what intellectual and emotional experiences did they resonate? How do they relate to the Silencing the Self Scale (STSS), first reported in the PWQ article on which I have been invited to reflect (Jack & Dill, 1992)? I am grateful for this opportunity in this anniversary section to blend my personal and professional thoughts about self-silencing, gender, and depression. Please find the original article at pwq.sagepub .com/content/16/1/97. My passion to understand depression undoubtedly has its origins in childhood. During the late 1950s, my parents divorced and my mother sank into a major depression, blaming herself for the failure of her marriage. She often wept, trying to understand what went wrong and asking herself ‘‘What have I done?’’ As a child, I wanted more than anything to understand how and why she thought that way, and how I could help her. I also felt a strong sense of unfairness over her predicament as the woman who was left behind, who went to work at a low-paying job while my father continued his highincome lifestyle. Living in Texas where male dominance was unquestioned, my mother had no sense of the structures that shaped her and through which she evaluated her worth. Even though I was so young, I knew that she was entrapped in a false view of herself. Although my mother was courageous, caring for three children and working outside the home, she felt emptied of value. What was this about? The pain of her depression, the unfairness that elevated men’s possibilities while curtailing women’s, and a desire to understand the complexity of what happened to her led to my lifelong quest to investigate depression. Carol Gilligan’s words immediately crystallized my understanding that moral themes, because they reflect social standards and provide a basis for self-judgment, offered a new way to examine depression. My awareness about how social norms had affected my mother’s despair was created when I entered Mount Holyoke College as an undergraduate in 1963. Our class had been told to read The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan (1963) before we even stepped on campus. In a stirring speech that fall, Friedan proclaimed that we were ‘‘Uncommon Women,’’ a designation that stayed with our class for 4 years. Initially, I understood the message to be that we needed to use our privilege and our achievements to avoid the entrapment of an ‘‘ordinary,’’ devalued woman’s life and that somehow we could and should integrate the opposing behaviors expected of caregivers and future professionals. I caught a glimpse of the factors affecting my mother’s despair: her identity resided in the roles of wife and mother, yet these roles had little social worth. After marriage, she had given up a promising career as an artist; she lost her sense of self with the divorce. I also began to experience how society constructs a basic conflict for women: it demands women’s selfless nurturance in relationships yet requires assertion for self-development and achievement. These polarities often coexist in an uneasy tension and are still voiced by the young women in my classes. Feminists continue to face the critical task of transforming traditionally ‘‘feminine’’ characteristics and activities such as nurturance, caregiving, generosity, and sensitivity into ones that are gender-neutral and culturally valued. On an urgent, practical level, we also face the challenge of creating social supports for mothers and children within a society that devalues both. Prior to beginning my graduate studies, I worked as a welfare caseworker in inner-city Seattle. Poverty, humiliation, and violence filled the lives of women on welfare, along with their attempts to resist such devaluation. I learned firsthand how the experience of self is profoundly rooted in social context and the quality of relationships. At that time I read all of John Bowlby’s work, seeking to understand the power of

Overcoming Discrimination, Persecution, and Violence Against Women

This chapter addresses how silence gives consent to conditions that are oppressive, and examines how voice is liberatory, providing an antidote to the power of oppression that survives through silence. Additionally, we focus on psychology’s responsibility to confront more proactively and systemically the interlinked issues of oppression, discrimination, and violence against women.

The bidimensional structure of suicidal symptoms in Nepal.

ABSTRACT Among 367 people in Nepal, we examined the empirical distinction between the plans versus desire dimensions of suicidality, using confirmatory factor analyses/structural equation modeling. Results were consistent with a distinction between two dimensions of suicidal symptoms. The current study thus affirms the general factorial construct validity of this distinction. By association, it also supports risk assessment procedures based upon this distinction (Joiner, Walker, Rudd et al., 1999). That this occurred using a measure heretofore unexamined in this area, using confirmatory factor analyses, and especially, within a very different cultural context, provides further support for this view. These findings may inform the clinical assessment of suicidal patients.

Relational Therapy for Depressed Women Depression and Women: An Integrative Treatment Approach, Susan L. Simonds.

A graduate student asking for some direction inspired Susan Simonds to write this practical approach to therapy with depressed women. After giving the student therapist a list of six recommended books, Simonds decided to combine the ideas into one model. The result is a highly readable description of her holistic approach, which incorporates traditional and nontraditional, multicultural, and feminist theories. The model, designed to treat the wide range of women who suffer from unipolar depression, emphasizes psychotherapeutic counseling rather than pharmacology. Aimed specifically for feminist therapists treating depressed women, any therapist will benefit from her valuable insights. The “holistic concept of wellness” as put forth in the I Ching, the ancient Chinese Book of Changes partly inspired Simonds’ unified approach, which she calls Integrative Relational Therapy (referred to throughout as IRT). By viewing the depressed woman’s range of symptoms as a collection of adaptive strategies developed to preserve significant relationships, she urges her clients away from self-criticism and self-blame. She draws heavily from Constructivist Self-Development Theory (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995), the feminist relational writings from the Stone Center (Jordan, 1997), Silencing the Self theory of women’s depression (Jack, 1991) and research on women’s adult development (Apter, 1995; Josselson, 1996) to create IRT. Simonds’ therapeutic approach works primarily from the premise that a woman’s sense of self is relationally driven. Simonds sets out the assumptions that underlie IRT in the opening chapter. She adopts a feminist, relational perspective on women’s development, the symptoms of depression, and on the healing power of connection in the therapeutic relationship. Placing this relational perspective within a biopsychosocial and culture-sensitive model, she attempts to highlight special issues in the therapeutic relationship related to culture, race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexual orientation, able-bodied status, and power. Although Simonds gives specific examples of depressed women throughout the book, these cases are usually middle-class, White, and/or have socially stable lives. The section on power differences in the therapeutic relationship needs a much more in-depth examination of how such power plays itself out, particularly when a therapist is not adequately sensitized to the special issues listed above. Still, the principles of therapy Simonds describes, particularly those she calls the five elements of therapy—assessment, patient safety, activation, connection, and meaning—can be useful for all depressed women if used with a feminist awareness of multiple oppressions and power, and their impact on the therapeutic relationship. Activation engages the client in “critical consciousness” (Comas-Diaz, 1994) that involves the capacity to analyze critically one’s place in the world and take action against oppressive life situations, including those that are social as well as intimate. Connection strives to help the client reestablish an awareness of authentic self. Meaning, the final phase of IRT, works to realign the client’s perspective toward hope, leading to a more affirmative, integrated identity. Accompanying tables for each of the elements of IRT offer intervention suggestions, problem solving techniques, and treatment goals. Throughout, Simonds stresses that depressed women clients need to acknowledge their own inner strength and voices, to develop the capacity to listen to and have empathy for themselves. IRT encourages the client essentially to have faith in herself, to take an active role in her own recovery from depression. In addition to specific chapters addressing therapeutic interventions, useful chapters include a literature review of depression in women, relapse prevention, what to do with unresponsive patients, and therapist self-care. Throughout, Simonds demonstrates a sensitive and sensible approach, backed up by a solid core of feminist research. For those devoted to the treatment of women with depression, this is a must-read book.

Relational Therapy for Depressed WomenDepression and Women: An Integrative Treatment Approach, SimondsSusan L.. New York: Springer Publishing Company, 2001. 290 pp.,

A graduate student asking for some direction inspired Susan Simonds to write this practical approach to therapy with depressed women. After giving the student therapist a list of six recommended books, Simonds decided to combine the ideas into one model. The result is a highly readable description of her holistic approach, which incorporates traditional and nontraditional, multicultural, and feminist theories. The model, designed to treat the wide range of women who suffer from unipolar depression, emphasizes psychotherapeutic counseling rather than pharmacology. Aimed specifically for feminist therapists treating depressed women, any therapist will benefit from her valuable insights. The “holistic concept of wellness” as put forth in the I Ching, the ancient Chinese Book of Changes partly inspired Simonds’ unified approach, which she calls Integrative Relational Therapy (referred to throughout as IRT). By viewing the depressed woman’s range of symptoms as a collection of adaptive strategies developed to preserve significant relationships, she urges her clients away from self-criticism and self-blame. She draws heavily from Constructivist Self-Development Theory (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995), the feminist relational writings from the Stone Center (Jordan, 1997), Silencing the Self theory of women’s depression (Jack, 1991) and research on women’s adult development (Apter, 1995; Josselson, 1996) to create IRT. Simonds’ therapeutic approach works primarily from the premise that a woman’s sense of self is relationally driven. Simonds sets out the assumptions that underlie IRT in the opening chapter. She adopts a feminist, relational perspective on women’s development, the symptoms of depression, and on the healing power of connection in the therapeutic relationship. Placing this relational perspective within a biopsychosocial and culture-sensitive model, she attempts to highlight special issues in the therapeutic relationship related to culture, race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexual orientation, able-bodied status, and power. Although Simonds gives specific examples of depressed women throughout the book, these cases are usually middle-class, White, and/or have socially stable lives. The section on power differences in the therapeutic relationship needs a much more in-depth examination of how such power plays itself out, particularly when a therapist is not adequately sensitized to the special issues listed above. Still, the principles of therapy Simonds describes, particularly those she calls the five elements of therapy—assessment, patient safety, activation, connection, and meaning—can be useful for all depressed women if used with a feminist awareness of multiple oppressions and power, and their impact on the therapeutic relationship. Activation engages the client in “critical consciousness” (Comas-Diaz, 1994) that involves the capacity to analyze critically one’s place in the world and take action against oppressive life situations, including those that are social as well as intimate. Connection strives to help the client reestablish an awareness of authentic self. Meaning, the final phase of IRT, works to realign the client’s perspective toward hope, leading to a more affirmative, integrated identity. Accompanying tables for each of the elements of IRT offer intervention suggestions, problem solving techniques, and treatment goals. Throughout, Simonds stresses that depressed women clients need to acknowledge their own inner strength and voices, to develop the capacity to listen to and have empathy for themselves. IRT encourages the client essentially to have faith in herself, to take an active role in her own recovery from depression. In addition to specific chapters addressing therapeutic interventions, useful chapters include a literature review of depression in women, relapse prevention, what to do with unresponsive patients, and therapist self-care. Throughout, Simonds demonstrates a sensitive and sensible approach, backed up by a solid core of feminist research. For those devoted to the treatment of women with depression, this is a must-read book.

44.95 (hardcover), ISBN: 0-8261-1445-8.

A graduate student asking for some direction inspired Susan Simonds to write this practical approach to therapy with depressed women. After giving the student therapist a list of six recommended books, Simonds decided to combine the ideas into one model. The result is a highly readable description of her holistic approach, which incorporates traditional and nontraditional, multicultural, and feminist theories. The model, designed to treat the wide range of women who suffer from unipolar depression, emphasizes psychotherapeutic counseling rather than pharmacology. Aimed specifically for feminist therapists treating depressed women, any therapist will benefit from her valuable insights. The “holistic concept of wellness” as put forth in the I Ching, the ancient Chinese Book of Changes partly inspired Simonds’ unified approach, which she calls Integrative Relational Therapy (referred to throughout as IRT). By viewing the depressed woman’s range of symptoms as a collection of adaptive strategies developed to preserve significant relationships, she urges her clients away from self-criticism and self-blame. She draws heavily from Constructivist Self-Development Theory (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995), the feminist relational writings from the Stone Center (Jordan, 1997), Silencing the Self theory of women’s depression (Jack, 1991) and research on women’s adult development (Apter, 1995; Josselson, 1996) to create IRT. Simonds’ therapeutic approach works primarily from the premise that a woman’s sense of self is relationally driven. Simonds sets out the assumptions that underlie IRT in the opening chapter. She adopts a feminist, relational perspective on women’s development, the symptoms of depression, and on the healing power of connection in the therapeutic relationship. Placing this relational perspective within a biopsychosocial and culture-sensitive model, she attempts to highlight special issues in the therapeutic relationship related to culture, race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexual orientation, able-bodied status, and power. Although Simonds gives specific examples of depressed women throughout the book, these cases are usually middle-class, White, and/or have socially stable lives. The section on power differences in the therapeutic relationship needs a much more in-depth examination of how such power plays itself out, particularly when a therapist is not adequately sensitized to the special issues listed above. Still, the principles of therapy Simonds describes, particularly those she calls the five elements of therapy—assessment, patient safety, activation, connection, and meaning—can be useful for all depressed women if used with a feminist awareness of multiple oppressions and power, and their impact on the therapeutic relationship. Activation engages the client in “critical consciousness” (Comas-Diaz, 1994) that involves the capacity to analyze critically one’s place in the world and take action against oppressive life situations, including those that are social as well as intimate. Connection strives to help the client reestablish an awareness of authentic self. Meaning, the final phase of IRT, works to realign the client’s perspective toward hope, leading to a more affirmative, integrated identity. Accompanying tables for each of the elements of IRT offer intervention suggestions, problem solving techniques, and treatment goals. Throughout, Simonds stresses that depressed women clients need to acknowledge their own inner strength and voices, to develop the capacity to listen to and have empathy for themselves. IRT encourages the client essentially to have faith in herself, to take an active role in her own recovery from depression. In addition to specific chapters addressing therapeutic interventions, useful chapters include a literature review of depression in women, relapse prevention, what to do with unresponsive patients, and therapist self-care. Throughout, Simonds demonstrates a sensitive and sensible approach, backed up by a solid core of feminist research. For those devoted to the treatment of women with depression, this is a must-read book.