Dana L. Woodruff

Effects of oiled sediment on predation on the littleneck clam, Protothaca staminea, by the Dungeness crab, Cancer magister

Field and laboratory experiments examined how oiled sediment influenced predation on littleneck clams, Protothaca staminea, by Dungeness crabs, Cancer magister. In two field enclosure experiments lasting 13 and 29 days crabs consumed more clams from oiled than clean sand. Clams were shallower in oiled than clean sand. To test whether the observed increase in predation rate on clams from oiled sand was due to shallow burial, a 19-day laboratory experiment examined predation rates on clams buried in different depths of sand. The high consumption of clams from shallow-clean sand indicated that shallow burial could have accounted for most but not all the higher consumption of clams in oiled sand. In a second laboratory experiment without crabs, clams were again shallower in oiled than clean sand. Clams did not actively emerge from oiled sand but did burrow slower into oiled sand. Shallow burial and slow reburrowing in oiled sand led to increased predation of littleneck clams through increasing the accessibility of clams to Dungeness crabs.

Salinity detection and associated behavior in the Dungeness crab, Cancer magister

Dungeness crabs, Cancer magister, showed the same antennular flicking response to brief (<2 min) salinity fluctuations as they have previously shown in detecting chemical food cues during other studies. The threshold concentrations at which 50% of the crabs detected the salinity changes were 29.9‰ and 32.7‰ or 96% and 105% of ambient seawater (31.0‰). At the maximum salinity changes used, other behaviors accompanied the flicking response. In a second experiment where salinity rose or fell continuously, two previously undescribed behaviors, pulsing and closure, occurred. In pulsing, crabs showed a rapid coordinated opening and closing of the outer maxillipeds with rapid beating of the maxillipedal flagellae. In closure, crabs stopped all overt activity, retracted their appendages and tightly closed the buccal cavity with the outer maxillipeds. Under increasing salinity crabs exhibited pulsing at 34.9‰ or 113% of ambient seawater and closure at 36.2‰ or 117% of ambient. Under decreasing salinity crabs showed pulsing at 23.2‰ or 75% of ambient seawater and closure at 15.5‰ or 50% of ambient.

Optical Delineation of Benthic Habitat Using an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle

To improve understanding and characterization of coastal regions, there has been an increasing emphasis on autonomous systems that can sample the ocean on relevant scales. Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) with active propulsion are especially well suited for studies of the coastal ocean because they are able to provide systematic and near-synoptic spatial observations. With this capability, science users are beginning to integrate sensor suits for a broad range of specific and often novel applications. Here, the relatively mature Remote Environmental Monitoring Units (REMUS) AUV system is configured with multi-spectral radiometers to delineate benthic habitat in Sequim Bay, WA. The vehicle was deployed in a grid pattern along 5 km of coastline in depths from 30 to less than 2 meters. Similar to satellite and/or aerial remote sensing, the bandwidth ratios from the downward looking radiance sensor and upward looking irradiance sensor were used to identify beds of eelgrass on sub-meter scales. Strong correlations were found between the optical reflectance signals and the geo-referenced in situ data collected with underwater video within the grid. Results demonstrate the ability of AUVs to map littoral habitats at high resolution and highlight the overall utility of the REMUS vehicle for nearshore oceanography.

Effects of Electromagnetic Fields on Fish and Invertebrates

In this progress report, we describe the preliminary experiments conducted with three fish and one invertebrate species to determine the effects of exposure to electromagnetic fields. During fiscal year 2010, experiments were conducted with coho salmon (Onchrohychus kisutch), California halibut (Paralicthys californicus), Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus), and Dungeness crab (Cancer magister). The work described supports Task 2.1.3: Effects on Aquatic Organisms, Subtask 2.1.3.1: Electromagnetic Fields.

Assessing the effects of marine and hydrokinetic energy development on marine and estuarine resources

The worlds oceans and estuaries offer enormous potential to meet the nations growing demand for energy. The use of marine and hydrokinetic (MHK) devices to harness the power of wave and tidal energy could contribute significantly toward meeting federaland state-mandated renewable energy goals while supplying a substantial amount of clean energy to coastal communities. Locations along the eastern and western coasts of the United States between 40° and 70° north latitude are ideal for MHK deployment, and recent estimates of wave and current energy resource potential in the US suggest that up to 400 terawatt hours could be generated, representing about 10% of national energy demand. Because energy derived from wave and tidal devices is highly predictable, their inclusion in our energy portfolio could help balance available sources of energy production, including hydroelectric, coal, nuclear, wind, solar, geothermal, and others. As an emerging industry, MHK energy developers face many challenges associated with the siting, permitting, construction, and operation of pilot and commercial-scale facilities. As the industry progresses, it will be necessary not only to secure financial support and develop robust technologies capable of efficient, continued operation in harsh environments, but also to implement effective monitoring programs to evaluate long-term effects of device operation and assure resource agencies and members of the public that potential environmental impacts are understood and can be addressed. At this time, little is known about the environmental effects of MHK energy generation at pilotor full-scale operational scenarios. Potential effects could include changes to aquatic species behavior from exposure to electromagnetic fields or operational noise; physical interaction of marine mammals, fish, and invertebrates with operating devices or mooring cables; or changes to beach characteristics and water quality from long-term deployment of devices in coastal locations. This lack of knowledge creates a high degree of uncertainty that affects the actions of regulatory agencies, influences the opinions and concerns of stakeholder groups, affects the commitment of energy project developers and investors, and ultimately, the solvency of the industry. To address the complexity of environmental issues associated with MHK energy, PNNL has received support from the Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Waterpower Program to develop research and development that draws on the knowledge of the industry, regulators, and stakeholders. Initial research has focused on 1) the development of a knowledge management database and related environmental risk evaluation system, 2) the use of hydrodynamic models to assess the effects of energy removal on coastal systems, 3) the development of laboratory and mesocosm experiments to evaluate the effects of EMF and noise on representative marine and estuarine species, and 4) collaborative interaction with regulators and other stakeholders to facilitate ocean energy devices, including participation in coastal and marine spatial planning activities. In this paper, we describe our approach for initial laboratory investigations to evaluate potential environmental effects of EMFs on aquatic resources. Testing will be conducted on species that are a) easily procured and cultured, b) ecologically, commercially, recreationally or culturally valuable, and c) reasonable surrogates for threatened or endangered species. Biological endpoints of interest are those that provide compelling evidence of magnetic field detection and have a nexus to individual, community, or population-level effects. Through laboratory, mesocosm, and limited field testing, we hope to reduce the uncertainly associated with the development of ocean energy resources, and gain regulatory and stakeholder acceptance. We believe this is the best approach for moving the science forward and provides the best opportunity for successfully applying this technology toward meeting our countrys renewable energy needs. During the project, the team will work closely with two other national laboratories (Sandia and Oak Ridge), the Northwest National Marine Renewable Energy Center at University of Washington and Oregon State University, and Pacific Energy Ventures.

Mapping of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Using Autonomous Underwater Vehicles in Nearshore Regions

The use of an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) equipped with sidescan sonar was investigated for determining the boundaries of nearshore submerged aquatic vegetation beds, specifically eelgrass (Zostera marina). Shifts in eelgrass bed morphology, size, and distribution are used as indicators in monitoring programs to measure the impacts of coastal development and environmental stressors on nearshore ecosystem health and to establish the efficacy of restoration programs. However, many monitoring programs necessarily extend over multiple-year time periods. Therefore, techniques that are easily reproducible, accurate, and cost-effective can demonstrate distinct advantages over some of the more traditional and labor-intensive methods, such as diver assessments and transects of shoot counts. Remote monitoring of eelgrass beds using satellite and aerial imagery has been demonstrated with moderate success, but requires groundtruthing, which can be costly and which frequently cannot delineate the deeper boundaries of eelgrass beds. One possible means for low-cost mapping is the use of AUVs equipped with acoustic imaging hardware. AUVs provide an ideal platform, because they can be deployed by small teams (two people), they are highly maneuverable, they can cover large areas over a relatively short time period (3 knot operational speed), and they are equipped with multiple oceanographic instruments for correlated data collection. This paper describes the use of sidescan-equipped AUV technology deployed over multiple time periods at the same location where imagery of eelgrass beds was obtained and analyzed for comparative purposes.

King County Nearshore Habitat Mapping Data Report: Picnic Point to Shilshole Bay Marina

The objective of this study is to provide accurate, georeferenced maps of benthic habitats to assist in the siting of a new wastewater treatment plant outfall and the assessment of habitats of endangered, threatened, and economically important species. The mapping was conducted in the fall of 1999 using two complementary techniques: side-scan sonar and underwater videography. Products derived from these techniques include geographic information system (GIS) compatible polygon data of substrate type and vegetation cover, including eelgrass and kelp. Additional GIS overlays include underwater video track line data of total macroalgae, selected macroalgal species, fish, and macroinvertebrates. The combined tools of geo-referenced side-scan sonar and underwater video is a powerful technique for assessing and mapping of nearshore habitat in Puget Sound. Side-scan sonar offers the ability to map eelgrass with high spatial accuracy and resolution, and provides information on patch size, shape, and coverage. It also provides information on substrate change and location of specific targets (e.g., piers, docks, pilings, large boulders, debris piles). The addition of underwater video is a complementary tool providing both groundtruthing for the sonar and additional information on macro fauna and flora. As a groundtruthing technique, the video was able to confirm differences between substrate types, as well as detect subtle spatial changes in substrate. It also verified information related to eelgrass, including the density classification categories and the type of substrate associated with eelgrass, which could not be determined easily with side- scan sonar. Video is also a powerful tool for mapping the location of macroalgae, (including kelp and Ulva), fish and macroinvertebrates. The ability to geo-locate these resources in their functional habitat provides an added layer of information and analytical potential.

Method development for comprehensive extraction and analysis of marine toxins: Liquid-liquid extraction and tandem liquid chromatography separations coupled to electrospray tandem mass spectrometry.

A variety of toxins are produced by marine and freshwater microorganisms that present a threat to human health. These toxins have diverse chemical properties and specifically, a range of hydrophobicity. Methods for extraction and identification of these toxins are often geared toward specific classes of toxin depending on the sample type. There is a need for a general method of toxin extraction and identification for screening samples where the likely toxin content is not known a priori. We have applied a general method for metabolite extraction to toxin containing samples. This method was coupled with a simple dual liquid chromatography approach for separating a broad range of toxins. This liquid chromatography approach was coupled to triple quadrupole and quadrupole time-of-flight MS/MS platforms. The method was testing on a fish matrix for recovery of palytoxin as well as marine corals for detection of natural mixtures of palytoxin analogues. The recovery of palytoxin was found to produce a linear response (R2 of 0.95) when spiked into the fish matrix with a limit of quantitation of 2.5 ng/μL and recovery efficiency of 73% + /- 9%. The screening of corals revealed varying amount of palytoxin, and in one case, different palytoxin structural analogues. This demonstration illustrates the potential utility of this method for toxin extraction and detection.

Annual Adaptive Management Report for Compensatory Mitigation at Keyport Lagoon: Mitigation of Pier B Development at the Bremerton Naval Facilities - Compensatory Mitigation at Keyport Lagoon - Naval Underwater Warfare Center Division - Keyport, Washington

Unites States Navy capital improvement projects are designed to modernize and improve mission capacity. Such capital improvement projects often result in unavoidable environmental impacts by increasing over-water structures, which results in a loss of subtidal habitat within industrial areas of Navy bases. In the Pacific Northwest, compensatory mitigation often targets alleviating impacts to Endangered Species Act-listed salmon species. The complexity of restoring large systems requires limited resources to target successful and more coordinated mitigation efforts to address habitat loss and improvements in water quality that will clearly contribute to an improvement at the site scale and can then be linked to a cumulative net ecosystem improvement.

Multi-Scale Action Effectiveness Research in the Lower Columbia River and Estuary, 2011 - FINAL ANNUAL REPORT

The study reported here was conducted by researchers at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW), the University of Washington (UW), and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Portland District (USACE). This research project was initiated in 2007 by the Bonneville Power Administration to investigate critical uncertainties regarding juvenile salmon ecology in shallow tidal freshwater habitats of the lower Columbia River. However, as part of the Washington Memorandum of Agreement, the project was transferred to the USACE in 2010. In transferring from BPA to the USACE, the focus of the tidal freshwater research project shifted from fundamental ecology toward the effectiveness of restoration in the Lower Columbia River and estuary (LCRE). The research is conducted within the Action Agencies Columbia Estuary Ecosystem Restoration Program (CEERP). Data reported herein spans the time period May 2010 to September 2011.