Daniel C. Moos

Measuring Cognitive and Metacognitive Regulatory Processes During Hypermedia Learning: Issues and Challenges

Self-regulated learning (SRL) with hypermedia environments involves a complex cycle of temporally unfolding cognitive and metacognitive processes that impact students’ learning. We present several methodological issues related to treating SRL as an event and strengths and challenges of using online trace methodologies to detect, trace, model, and foster students’ SRL processes. We first describe a scenario illustrating the complex nature of SRL processes during learning with hypermedia. We provide our theoretically driven assumptions regarding the use of several cognitive methodologies, including concurrent think aloud protocols, and provide several examples of empirical evidence regarding the advantages of treating SRL as an event. Last, we discuss challenges for measuring cognitive and metacognitive processes in the context of MetaTutor, an intelligent adaptive hypermedia learning environment. This discussion includes the roles of pedagogical agents in goal-generation, multiple representations, agent-learner dialogue, and a systems ability to detect, track, and model SRL processes during learning.

Learning With Computer-Based Learning Environments: A Literature Review of Computer Self-Efficacy

Although computer-based learning environments (CBLEs) are becoming more prevalent in the classroom, empirical research has demonstrated that some students have difficulty learning with these environments. The motivation construct of computer-self efficacy plays an integral role in learning with CBLEs. This literature review synthesizes research that has empirically examined factors related to computer self-efficacy and the relationship between computer self-efficacy, learning outcomes, and learning processes with CBLEs. Results indicate that behavioral and psychological factors are positively related to computer self-efficacy. Students who receive behavioral modeling report significantly higher computer self-efficacy than do students who receive the more traditional instruction-based method when learning with CBLEs. Computer self-efficacy is related both to learning outcomes and to learning processes with CBLEs. This review also offers theoretical and methodological issues for future research in the area of computer self-efficacy.

Review: Multimedia, hypermedia, and hypertext: Motivation considered and reconsidered

Computer-based instruction (CBI) is becoming increasingly popular in the classroom, particularly because the latest technological advancements allow for visually rich and interactive environments. While the inherent nature of CBIs is often thought to engage learners, research examining the role of motivation in learning with these environments has resulted in mixed findings. These findings are further complicated by unique design characteristics of distinct CBIs. This literature review synthesizes research that has examined the role of theoretically-grounded constructs of motivation in the context of three popular CBIs, multimedia, hypermedia, and hypertext. Specifically, this literature review considered empirical studies that examined the effect of these CBIs on motivation, in addition to the effect of motivation on learning outcomes and the learning process within the context of these environments. The literature review concludes with a theoretical consideration of previous research and a discussion of a framework for future directions.

Exploring differences between gifted and grade-level students' use of self-regulatory learning processes with hypermedia

Research involving gifted and grade-level students has shown that they display differences in their knowledge of self-regulatory strategies. However, little research exists regarding whether these students differ in their actual use of these strategies. This study aimed to address this question by examining think-aloud data collected from 98 gifted and grade-level students engaging in a complex learning task: utilizing a hypermedia environment to learn about the circulatory system. We also examined both declarative knowledge and mental model measures of learning to determine whether these groups differed in their actual performance. Our results show that gifted students did outperform grade-level students in all outcome measures. In addition, gifted students more often utilized more sophisticated self-regulatory strategies (e.g. coordinating informational sources) than grade-level students. Grade-level students were more likely to use less effective strategies that are less likely to promote the acquisition of knowledge (e.g. mnemonics). Recommendations for future intervention studies are based upon these findings.

Self-Regulated Learning in the Classroom: A Literature Review on the Teacher's Role

Empirical research has supported the long held assumption that individual differences exist in how students learn. Recent methodological advancements have allowed educational research to examine not only what students learn, but also how they learn. Research has found that active involvement in learning, including setting meaningful goals, selecting appropriate and task-specific strategies, monitoring motivational levels, and adapting based on feedback are all positively related to learning outcomes. How can teachers support students’ development and use of these learning processes? The goal of this paper is to examine research that has used the Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) theory to consider this broad question. Methodological advancements recently used in this field of research, various SRL theoretical frameworks guiding this research, and studies that empirically examined self-regulation with both preservice and inservice teachers are discussed. The paper concludes with the theoretical, methodological, and practical implications of the reviewed studies.

Self-Regulated Learning and Externally Generated Feedback with Hypermedia

Think-aloud and self-report data from 65 undergraduates were used to examine the effect of feedback on self-regulation during learning with hypermedia. Participants, randomly assigned to one of three conditions (Control, Questions, Questions+Feedback), used hypermedia for 30 minutes to learn about the circulatory system. Results indicated that participants in the Questions+Feedback condition initially reported significantly lower levels of self-efficacy. However, they also reported increased levels as they progressed through the learning task. Additionally, participants in the Questions and Questions+Feedback conditions engaged in monitoring processes and activated prior knowledge more frequently, on average, than those in the Control condition. Lastly, participants in the Questions condition used significantly more strategies and outperformed those participants in the Questions+Feedback condition.

Student Teacher Challenges: Using the Cognitive Load Theory as an Explanatory Lens.

Cognitive load theory (CLT) can explain the challenges faced by student teachers. This study, guided by the CLT, included 26 pre-service teachers. Participants completed a cognitive load self-report questionnaire and were interviewed at two points during their student teaching. Results revealed that student teachers decreased mental effort related to monitoring their students’ level of attention, meeting needs of diverse learners, and managing internal and external distractions. Qualitative analysis revealed: (1) student teachers became aware of limited cognitive resources; (2) lesson planning imposes cognitive load during student teaching; and (3) cognitive overload limits the ability to make modifications during teaching.

Self-Regulated Learning with Hypermedia: Bringing Motivation into the Conversation

Despite its popularity in the classroom, hypermedia learning is challenging, as empirical research has shown. The inherent design of the hypermedia structure requires students to engage in a variety of metacognitive monitoring processes, which provides feedback that facilitates the process of adaptation during learning. The Self-Regulated Learning Theory (SRL) has provided a theoretical lens to examine these processes during hypermedia learning. While a myriad of theoretical approaches to SRL exist, the Information Processing model has been widely used in the context of hypermedia learning. This article outlines the contributions of this theory to field of hypermedia learning, while also highlighting the need for additional empirical research that systematically considers theoretically-grounded constructs of motivation within SRL. The premise of this chapter is that motivation offers a potential explanation of individual differences in how students respond to negative feedback loops during hypermedia learning. Methodological and theoretical challenges are examined, including the identification of specific motivation constructs (e.g., outcome expectations, incentives, efficacy expectations, attributions, and utility) that align with existing SRL theoretical frameworks.

Nonlinear technology: Changing the conception of extrinsic motivation?

Think-aloud and self-report data from 84 undergraduates were used to examine the relationship between intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and use of self-regulated learning (SRL) processes. Participants individually learned about the circulatory system with a hypermedia environment for 30 min. During this experimental session, three measures were used to examine the research questions guiding the study. Participants completed a self-report questionnaire that measured their extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. They also completed a pretest and posttest, which assessed learning outcomes. Lastly, think-aloud data were collected to determine the frequency in which participants used SRL process related to planning, monitoring, and strategy use. Results indicate that participants who had high extrinsic and high intrinsic motivation used significantly more planning and monitoring processes when compared to participants who had lower motivation scores for either the extrinsic or intrinsic category. Additionally, participants who had high extrinsic and high intrinsic motivation significantly outperformed those who had low extrinsic and low intrinsic motivation.

The Role of Personal Beliefs in the Evaluation of Pre-service Teachers’ Lesson Plans – A Single Case Study

Aims: This study examined the relationship between personal beliefs and views of instructional practice. Study Design: Anon-experimental quantitative mixed methods research design was used. Place and Duration of Study: Research setting at Gustavus Adolphus College (St. Peter, MN, USA). Participants individually completed the study during the spring of 2012. Methodology: Thirty-three pre-service teachers completed a self-report questionnaire and thought aloud as they evaluated two lesson plans. Results: Two dimensions of epistemological beliefs significantly predicted participants’ views of constructivist teaching, R=.25, F(1,32)=4.927, p=.014. Additionally, participants’ evaluation of how a lesson plan supports self-regulated learning was significantly predicted by constructivist views, R=.14, F(1,29)=4.575, p=.04.Lastly, the evaluation of the student-centered nature of a lesson plan was significantly predicted by more traditional views, R=.14, F(1, 29)=4.575, p=.04. Conclusion: Participants with stronger constructivist views of teaching made significantly Original Research Article British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 4(6): 768-783, 2014 769 more evaluations based on the lesson plan’s support of self-regulated learning. Additionally, stronger traditional views were related to fewer evaluations on the studentcentered nature of the lesson plan. Thus, differences in lesson plan evaluations can be explained by pre-service teachers’ personal beliefs.