Jeffrey A. Greene

A Theoretical Review of Winne and Hadwin’s Model of Self-Regulated Learning: New Perspectives and Directions:

This theoretical review of Winne and Hadwin’s model of self-regulated learning (SRL) seeks to highlight how the model sheds new light on current research as well as suggests interesting new directions for future work. The authors assert that the model’s more complex cognitive architecture, inclusion of monitoring and control within each phase of learning, and separation of task definition and goal setting into separate phases are all important contributions to the SRL literature. New research directions are outlined, including more nuanced interpretations of judgments of learning and the potential to more thoroughly assess the influence of interactions among cognitive and task conditions on all phases of learning.

The Measurement of Learners’ Self-Regulated Cognitive and Metacognitive Processes While Using Computer-Based Learning Environments

In an attempt to combat ever-increasing class sizes and the teacher bandwidth problem (Wiley & Edwards, 2002), educators are depending more and more upon computerbased learning environments (CBLEs) as pedagogical tools. CBLEs, including hypertext, hypermedia, intelligent tutoring systems (ITS), virtual worlds, simulations, and other environments that use some type of technology to deliver instruction or instructional materials, can be powerful learning tools due to their ability to present multiple representations of information in a manner that affords a great deal of learner control (Lajoie & Azevedo, 2006). However, the research is clear that students who are unable to effectively self-regulate their learning (Winne & Hadwin, 2008; Zimmerman, 2000) with CBLEs are much less likely to acquire deep, conceptual understanding than their peers who have these skills (Azevedo, 2005a; Azevedo & Jacobson, 2008; Greene & Azevedo, 2007; Shapiro, 2008; Shapiro & Niederhauser, 2004; White & Frederiksen, 2005). Therefore, there has been increasing interest in studying how students self-regulate when learning with CBLEs, and how selfregulated learning (SRL) processing can be fostered in students who do not enact these behaviors on their own. The impetus for this special issue of Educational Psychologist came from our observations that self-report methods of measuring SRL (e.g., the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire; Duncan & McKeachie, 2005) are being supplanted by techniques that capture SRL as dynamic series of events

The Role of Epistemic Beliefs in Students’ Self-Regulated Learning With Computer-Based Learning Environments: Conceptual and Methodological Issues

Users benefit most from computer-based learning environments (CBLEs) when they are adept at self-regulated learning (SRL). Learner characteristics, such as epistemic beliefs, influence SRL processing. Therefore, research into learning with CBLEs must account for interactions between epistemic beliefs and SRL. In this article we integrate epistemic belief frameworks and models of SRL, and we argue that both phenomena should be modeled as a dynamic series of events. Such modeling allows for an examination of how various epistemic beliefs may be activated and deactivated through the process of self-regulation. We also show how CBLEs can be used to measure epistemic beliefs in novel ways and study how epistemic beliefs and SRL interact. Finally, we identify areas for future research and educational implications.

Exploring differences between gifted and grade-level students' use of self-regulatory learning processes with hypermedia

Research involving gifted and grade-level students has shown that they display differences in their knowledge of self-regulatory strategies. However, little research exists regarding whether these students differ in their actual use of these strategies. This study aimed to address this question by examining think-aloud data collected from 98 gifted and grade-level students engaging in a complex learning task: utilizing a hypermedia environment to learn about the circulatory system. We also examined both declarative knowledge and mental model measures of learning to determine whether these groups differed in their actual performance. Our results show that gifted students did outperform grade-level students in all outcome measures. In addition, gifted students more often utilized more sophisticated self-regulatory strategies (e.g. coordinating informational sources) than grade-level students. Grade-level students were more likely to use less effective strategies that are less likely to promote the acquisition of knowledge (e.g. mnemonics). Recommendations for future intervention studies are based upon these findings.

Predictors of Retention and Achievement in a Massive Open Online Course

Massive open online courses (MOOCs) have been heralded as an education revolution, but they suffer from low retention, calling into question their viability as a means of promoting education for all. In addition, numerous gaps remain in the research literature, particularly concerning predictors of retention and achievement. In this study, we used survival analysis to examine the degree to which student characteristics, relevance, prior experience with MOOCs, self-reported commitment, and learners’ implicit theory of intelligence predicted retention and achievement. We found that learners’ expected investment, including level of commitment, expected number of hours devoted to the MOOC, and intention to obtain a certificate, related to retention likelihood. Prior level of schooling and expected hours devoted to the MOOC predicted achievement.

The Wisdom Development Scale: Translating the Conceptual to the Concrete

In a previous study, a conceptual model of wisdom was created (Brown, 2004a) to better understand integrated learning outcomes. The purpose of this study is to develop a scale to measure this wisdom construct. This article discusses salient aspects of the extant professional literature regarding the measurement of wisdom and details the efforts to develop a valid and reliable Wisdom Development Scale (WDS) through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Six of the seven factors were validated and the scale had acceptable confirmatory factor analysis fit. The article concludes with limitations of the study, implications for future research, and potential applications in higher education.

The Wisdom Development Scale: Further Validity Investigations

Researchers are gaining an interest in the concept of wisdom, a more holistic yet often ineffable educational outcome. Models of wisdom abound, but few have rigorously tested measures. This study looks at Browns (2004a, 2004b) Model of Wisdom Development and its associated measure, the Wisdom Development Scale (WDS; Brown & Greene, 2006). The construct validity, measurement invariance, criterion validity, and reliability of scores from the WDS were assessed with over 3000 participants from two separate groups: one a sample of professionals and the other a sample of college students. Support for construct validity and reliability with these samples was found, along with measurement invariance. Latent means analyses showed predicted discrimination between the groups, and criterion validity evidence, with another measure of collegiate educational outcomes, was found.

Clinical Improvements of Suicidal Outpatients: Examining Suicide Status Form Responses as Predictors and Moderators

This investigation used hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to examine whether index responses on the Suicide Status Form (SSF) moderated the predicted session-to-session change over course of care in overall symptoms and suicidal ideation. Ninety-two suicidal patients at a university counseling center were studied. Overall, suicidal patients improved symptomatically and decreased their suicidal ideation over the course of care. SSF index ratings of overall risk of suicide significantly moderated the predicted session-to-session change in suicidal ideation over the course of care; patient ratings of frequency of suicidal thoughts were also moderated by index SSF ratings of hopelessness and self-hate. These findings partially replicated earlier data of differential treatment response outcomes and provide valuable assessment and treatment information that is relevant to future research and successful clinical care of suicidal outpatients.

A Two-Tiered Approach to Analyzing Self-Regulated Learning Data to Inform the Design of Hypermedia Learning Environments

The research shows that the lack of instructional scaffolding and high degree of user control inherent to most HLEs make them difficult learning environments for learners who lack the ability to appropriately self-regulate their learning. Therefore, developers of HLEs must construct these environments in ways that not only promote knowledge acquisition, but also foster and scaffold SRL skills. This chapter introduces a two-tiered (i.e., the micro- and macro- level) approach to analyzing SRL data derived from think aloud protocols, which can be informative in terms of the domain-, task-specific self-regulatory processes that should be scaffolded in particular HLEs. The two-tiered approach provides a bridge between the SRL data and theory by showing how the micro-level learning processes (e.g., judgments of learning) can be used to indicate the degree to which individuals engage in the macro-level categories of self-regulation discussed in SRL models. Findings from a number of our research studies illustrate how analyzing data at both tiers results in a comprehensive understanding of how learners self-regulate in HLEs, and how the nature and quality of that self-regulation interacts with internal and external conditions.

Educating Critical Thinkers: The Role of Epistemic Cognition

Proliferating information and viewpoints in the 21st century require an educated citizenry with the ability to think critically about complex, controversial issues. Critical thinking requires epistemic cognition: the ability to construct, evaluate, and use knowledge. Epistemic dispositions and beliefs predict many academic outcomes, as well as whether people use their epistemic cognition skills, for example, scrutinizing methods in science and evaluating sources in history. The evidence supporting the importance of epistemic cognition, inside and outside of the classroom, has led to a growing body of intervention research. However, more research can reveal how to best position teachers and students to develop and enact productive epistemic cognition. Promising directions for future research and policy include developing learning environments that promote students’ epistemic cognition and subsequent critical thinking, as well as incorporating this work into educator preparation programs.