Daniel Gould

Life skills development through sport: current status and future directions

This review is designed to summarize and critique current life skills through sport research. In particular, life skills are defined, the conditions needed to examine life skills development are explored, and the possible theoretical explanations of how, when, under what conditions and why life skills develop in sport participants are discussed. A heuristic model of coaching life skills is offered. To conclude, future research directions are forwarded and include the need for: (a) quantitative and qualitative research; (b) the development of valid life skills through sport measures; (c) an examination of sport program type differences; (d) evaluation research; (e) longitudinal studies; (f) studies focusing on identifying theoretical explanations for the life skill development sport participation link; (g) the utilization of experimental designs; and (h) an examination of the transferability of life skills. The importance of conducting this type of research for both theoretical and practical reasons is emphasized.

Coping Strategies Used by U.S. Olympic Wrestlers

Extensive in-depth interviews were conducted with all 20 members of the 1988 U.S. Olympic Wrestling Team regarding their efforts to cope with stress experienced during the Seoul Olympics. Qualitative analyses revealed that the wrestlers employed a variety of coping strategies including: (a) thought control strategies (blocking distractions, perspective taking, positive thinking, coping thoughts, and prayer), (b) task focus strategies (narrow, more immediate focus, concentrating on goals), (c) behavioral based strategies (changing or controlling the environment, following a set routine), and (d) emotional control strategies (arousal control, visualization). In accordance with the observations of Compas (1987) and Folkman and Lazarus (1985), the coping efforts of the Olympic wrestlers were not limited to particular strategies nor to single approaches to dealing with a particular stressor but, rather, reflected a dynamic complex process involving a number of strategies, often in combination. The results also suggested that the degree to which coping strategies are well learned or automatized is related to their perceived effectiveness.

Factors Influencing Olympic Performance: Interviews with Atlanta and Nagano U.S. Olympians

To gain a better understanding of factors perceived to have positively and/or negatively influenced Olympic athlete performance and to examine differences in performance factors cited by athletes who met or exceeded performance expectations and athletes who failed to meet expectations, 8 Atlanta and 7 Nagano Olympians were interviewed. Interviews were conducted via telephone, tape recorded, transcribed, and content analyzed by three investigators. Major factors perceived to have positively influenced performance included mental skills and preparation, attitude towards the Olympics, support services and support facilitation, multifaceted preparation, physical preparation, and coaching. Major factors perceived to have negatively influenced performance included departing from normal routine, media distractions, coach issues, overtraining, and injury. The two groups, those who met or exceeded expectations and those who did not meet expectations, differed on only a few positive performance factors, including attitude towards the games, Olympic housing, and team unity. Negative factors that differed between the groups included team selection, coaching, lack of support, and team issues.

Coaching Life Skills through Football: A Study of Award Winning High School Coaches

This study examined how outstanding high school football coaches developed life skills in their players. In-depth phone interviews were conducted with 10 outstanding coaches ranging in age from 47 to 68 years (M = 54). Coaches averaged 31 years of coaching experience, and were highly successful (76.6% winning percentage). Hierarchical content analysis of the data revealed that two general dimensions or categories of strategies emerged: (a) general coaching; and (b) player development strategies. Within the general coaching strategies dimension, higher-order themes focused on working with players and strategies for dealing with other parties. In the player development strategies general dimension was the higher-order theme set of teaching life skills. Results highlighted that it was clear these coaches did not view the coaching of life skills as separate from their general coaching strategies for performance enhancement and while highly motivated to win, personal development of their players was a top priority.

Coping strategies used by national champion figure skaters

This investigation had two purposes: (a) to identify and describe the coping strategies used by national champion figure skaters and (b) to examine the relationship between coping strategies and particular stress sources. Participants were 17 of 20 (85%) Senior U.S. National Champion figure skaters who won titles between 1985 and 1990. All skaters were interviewed, and the interview transcripts were content analyzed. General coping dimensions reported by at least 40% of the skaters included (a) rational thinking and self-talk, (b) positive focus and orientation, (c) social support (e.g., receiving support from coach, talking with friends and family), (d) time management and prioritization, (e) precompetitive mental preparation and anxiety management (e.g., relaxation, visualization), (f) training hard and smart, (g) isolation and deflection (e.g., not letting things get to me, avoiding/screening media), and (h) ignoring the stressor(s). It was also found that the skaters implemented different coping strategies depending on the specific stressors encountered.

Psychological skills for enhancing performance: arousal regulation strategies

This review summarizes and integrates current empirical and theoretical research on arousal regulation strategies for enhancing athletic performance. The need to view arousal as a multifaceted construct made up of both cognitive and physiological components was emphasized, as well as the importance of understanding arousal-performance relationship theories that go beyond a simple inverted-U notion. Categories of arousal regulation strategies were discussed and included: arousal energizing techniques, biofeedback techniques, relaxation response strategies, cognitive behavioral interventions, and mental preparation routines. It was concluded that these techniques can be effective in influencing arousal and facilitating performance. However, additional research (especially evaluation research) using more rigorous methods, determining how and why interventions work, using case study methodologies, identifying personality and situational factors influencing arousal regulation effectiveness, and identifying the most effective means of teaching arousal regulation is needed.

Psychological preparation for the Olympic Games

Abstract We review research literature on psychological preparation for Olympic Games performance. We address research identifying psychological characteristics associated with Olympic performance success, studies examining how these attributes are developed, stress and coping in Olympians, evaluation studies of the Olympic experience with particular emphasis on factors influencing performance, and the best practice literature on effective Olympic psychological consultations. Key principles are identified as well as gaps in the knowledge base that need to be addressed by investigators. Finally, implications for preparing individual athletes, coaches, and teams are discussed.

Weight loss, dietary carbohydrate modifications, and high intensity, physical performance

Well trained subjects (N = 12) were studied before and after losing approximately 6% of body weight to determine whether physical performance could be maintained while consuming a hypocaloric, high percentage carbohydrate diet. During a 4-d period of weight loss, subjects were randomly assigned to a high carbohydrate (HC) or low carbohydrate (LC) diet. A crossover design was used; subjects were measured before (PRE) and after (POST) weight loss on both diets for a 6-min bout of high intensity arm cranking, weight, skinfold thickness, and profile of mood states (POMS). Hemoglobin, hematocrit, and glycerol concentrations were analyzed for resting blood samples, while lactate, pH, and base excess were analyzed for blood samples drawn at rest and 1, 3, and 5 min after arm cranking. A three-way ANOVA of sprint work revealed a weight loss effect, a diet by weight loss interaction, and an order by diet by weight loss interaction (P less than 0.05). Total sprint work (mean +/- SE) PRE and POST HC was 37.7 +/- 2.1 kJ and 37.4 +/- 2.2 kJ, respectively. Sprint work was higher for PRE LC vs POST LC, with mean values of 37.4 +/- 2.1 kJ and 34.4 +/- 2.2 kJ, respectively. Post-arm cranking lactate was significantly higher PRE compared to POST for both HC and LC. Post-exercise blood pH was lower (P less than 0.05) at PRE vs POST, with no diet effect. Regardless of the diet, POMS variables tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion were significantly elevated from PRE to POST; vigor was significantly lower.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Understanding the role parents play in tennis success: a national survey of junior tennis coaches

Objectives: To assess coaches’ perceptions about the role of parents and their positive and negative behaviours in junior tennis. Methods: A national survey of 132 United States junior tennis coaches was completed. The extent and seriousness/impact of parent-child interaction problems and positive behaviours were rated. Results: Parents were perceived as very important for junior tennis success. Most parents (59%) that these coaches had worked with were seen as having a positive influence on their player’s development. However, the respondents also felt that 36% of parents negatively influenced their child’s development. Positive parental behaviours included providing logistical, financial, and social-emotional support, as well as tennis opportunities and unconditional love. Negative parent behaviours included overemphasising winning, holding unrealistic expectations, and criticising their child. Conclusions: Findings are discussed relative to current sport parenting and athletic talent development research and theorising. The need to educate parents is emphasised.

A survey of U.S. Atlanta and Nagano Olympians: Variables perceived to influence performance

Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency and magnitude of specific variables perceived to have affected U.S. Olympic athlete performance. Participants included 296 Atlanta Olympians and 83 Nagano Olympians. Olympians rated how they perceived specific variables influenced their Olympic performance. Results revealed that numerous variables, including performance influences, such as preparation for distractions and loss of composure; team variables, such as strong cohesion and positive coach-athlete relationships; coaching variables, including coachs ability to deal with crises and coaching expectations; family-friend variables, including general social support and getting event tickets for family and friends; and environmental concerns, such as venue transportation difficulties and Olympic village distractions; were perceived to influence performance. Findings verified the results of qualitative interviews conducted with Olympic athletes and coaches.