Robert Weinberg

Does Imagery Work? Effects on Performance and Mental Skills

This paper provides a review of the literature on the relationship between imagery and sport performance as well as between imagery and the development of mental skills. First, the many anecdotal reports of imagery effectiveness are noted and a definition is provided focusing on the multidimensional nature of imagery. The evidence of the enhancing influence of imagery on sport performance is then examined by looking at the early studies (mental practice), case studies, preparatory imagery, imagery used as part of a mental training package, and the use of imagery by successful athletes. After discussing the limitations in research imagery relating to performance, the focus turned to the relationship of imagery and the development of mental skills (e.g., confidence, dealing with pressure, motivation). Factors affecting imagery effectiveness were highlighted including imagery perspective, type of task, positive versus negative imagery, and timing of imagery. The paper concluded with future directions for research including such areas as amount of time to image, imagery and children, imagery ability, and imagery and performance expertise.

The Relationship Between Mental Preparation Strategies and Motor Performance: A Review and Critique

This paper reviews the mental practice literature as well as more current research on the effect of specific mental preparation strategies on skilled performance. A synopsis of the mental practice literature indicated that mental practice was generally effective in enhancing performance. For maximum effectiveness, mental practice should be used in conjunction with physical practice and should not be thought of as a replacement for physical practice. The degree of effectiveness of mental practice is dependent on a number of variables, such as conceptualizing ability, previous experience, task type, and length of practice session. Recently, researchers have begun to study the effect of specific mental preparation on motor performance. Some of the more popular techniques include imagery, selfefficacy statements, attentional focus, preparatory arousal, and relaxation. In addition, several recent techniques such as stress innoculation training and visuomotor behavior rehearsal use a combination of the techniqu...

Goal setting and performance in sport and exercise settings : a synthesis and critique

Although goal setting research in industrial and organizational settings has been proliferating rapidly over the past 20 yr, it is only recently that sport psychologists begun to systematically test its effects in sport and exercise settings. However, the recent empirical literature in sport and exercise examining the relationship between goals and performance has been equivocal. Thus, the purposes of the present review are fourfold: (a) briefly review the industrial/organizational literatures concerning the relationship between goals and task performance; (b) review the literature testing the relationship between goals and performance in sport and exercise settings; (c) discuss methodological and interpretive limitations including the impact of mediating variables; (d) offer future directions for research.

The Relationship Between the Use and Effectiveness of Imagery: An Exploratory Investigation

The major purposes of the present investigation were (a) to enhance the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ) by adding an effectiveness component to the already existing frequency component;(b) to assess when, and under what conditions, imagery is being employed by athletes; and (c) to conduct an exploratory analysis of the impact of gender and type of sport on imageryuse. Participants were 523 athletes from both individual and team sports at two NCAA Division I universities. They all completed the SIQ, Imagery Use Questionnaire (IUQ) and anopen-ended questionnaire assessing their imagery use. Results revealed that both the revised SIQ and IUQ had high internal consistency reliability. Results from the IUQ as well as theopen-ended questionnaire, revealed that athletes used imagery predominantly before competition. Open-ended findings revealed that athletes also used imagery in tough/difficult situationswhere pressure was high. Results are discussed in terms of previous imagery and socialization literature, and practical implications as well as future research directions are offered.

The effectiveness of psychological interventions in competitive sport

SummaryThe use of psychological interventions in competitive sport to enhance performance has become increasingly popular. However, the effectiveness of these interventions has been questioned by some sports psychologists. In general, educationally-based psychological interventions have produced significant increases in performance. Specifically, it was found that 38 of the 45 studies examined (85%) had found positive performance effects, although causality could only be inferred in 20 of these studies. These interventions could be classified as relaxation-based, cognitive, cognitive-behavioural or behavioural in nature. Although general support was provided for the effectiveness of psychological interventions in competitive sports, a number of methodological shortcomings limit the application of the findings. For example, future intervention research in competitive sport should employ more detailed manipulation checks, include follow-up assessments beyond a mere post test, include placebo-control groups to control for expectancy effects and include more diverse samples. In addition to the empirical intervention research, recent research employing qualitative methodologies has greatly added to our understanding of the types of interventions and what type of sport psychology consultants most positively affect performance enhancement, as well as the personal growth of athletes. Continued quantitative and qualitative research needs to be conducted so that a better understanding is gained of how to conduct psychological interventions with athletes that will enhance performance as well as personal growth.

Effects of preexisting and manipulated self-efficacy on weight loss in a self-control program

The present study was designed to investigate the effects of self-efficacy on weight loss utilizing self-control techniques. Subjects high and low in preexisting self-efficacy were randomly assigned to high or low manipulated self-efficacy groups in a 2 × 2 (preexisting self-efficacy × manipulated self-efficacy) factorial design. Preexisting self-efficacy was assessed using procedures employed byBandura and Adams (1977, Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1, 287–308). Selfefficacy was manipulated by having subjects attribute successful task performance to a previously unrecognized capacity for self-control. Subjects met in groups once a week for a total of 8 weeks and received a comprehensive weight control program within the context of self-control. Results indicated significant manipulated and preexisting × trials interactions with both the high manipulated and preexisting self-efficacy groups losing more weight over the 8 weeks than the low preexisting and manipulated groups. In addition, locus of control was predictive of weight loss, with internals tending to lose more weight than externals. Results are discussed in terms of Banduras (1977, Psychological Review, 84, 191–215) theory of self-efficacy.

Burnout in sport: A review and critique

Abstract Literature on burnout has typically focused on individuals in occupations denoted by the terms of human services or helping professions. However, recently, studies and conceptual models have appeared investigating burnout in the athletic environment. The purpose of this paper is to review the literature on burnout in sport. First, the need for a standard operational definition is discussed along with a brief overview of the burnout research in the helping professions, The conceptual model of burnout developed by Smith (1986) is presented along with research relating to coaches, athletes and athletic trainers. Some of the methodological and measurement problems are addressed and future directions for research are offered.

Broken clubs and expletives: the sources of stress and coping responses of skilled and moderately skilled golfers.

There has been a large growth of sport psychology stress/coping research in the last decade. However, skilled and moderately skilled golfers have not received much research attention. Therefore, the purposes of this qualitative, descriptive study were to assess the sources of stress and coping responses of skilled and moderately skilled golfers with regard to performance related stress. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 golfers who played a minimum of 10 rounds of golf during the current golf season. Using the analytic strategies described by Côté, Salmela, Baria, and Russell (1993) and Lincoln and Guba (1985), a research team performed an inductive analysis that resulted in the emergence of the following coping strategies: cognitive strategies, relaxation techniques, off course efforts, golf course strategies, avoidance coping, and emotion-focused coping. The results are discussed in terms of current coping research in sport and applied implications are offered.

Effects of Competition, Success/Failure, and Sex on Intrinsic Motivation

Abstract The purpose of the present investigation was to determine the effect of different types of competition and success/failure on intrinsic motivation of males and females performing on a motor task. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of the following competition conditions: (a) face-to-face competition, (b) competition against a standard of excellence, or (c) a noncompetitive condition (control). In addition, subjects received either success or failure feedback while performing on the pursuit rotor. Results indicated that subjects receiving success exhibited more intrinsic motivation than subjects receiving failure. Subjects also displayed more intrinsic motivation during competition than when not in competition. In addition, the Sex × Competition interaction indicated that males exhibited more intrinsic motivation when competing than when not competing, whereas females displayed no differences between these conditions. Results are discussed in light of previous research by Deci (1975) and Deaux...

Competition and Extrinsic Rewards: Effect on Intrinsic Motivation and Attribution

Abstract The purpose of the present investigation was to determine the effect of monetary rewards and success/failure on intrinsic motivation and causal attributions of males and females competing on a motor task. Multivariate analysis of variance produced a significant overall main effect for feedback, with subjects exhibiting more intrinsic motivation after success than after failure. The Sex × Feedback interaction (p < .09) indicated that males exhibited more intrinsic motivation than females after success, whereas females displayed more intrinsic motivation than males after failure. Attribution results showed that success was primarily attributed to high ability, high effort, and good luck while failure was attributed to low ability, low effort, and bad luck. Correlational analysis revealed that success was related to high ability, high effort, good luck, and high intrinsic motivation. Conversely, failure was associated with low ability, low effort, bad luck, and low intrinsic motivation. In addition,...