Daniel H. Krymkowski

The Relationship Between Visitor-Based Standards of Quality and Existing Conditions in Parks and Outdoor Recreation

Abstract Parks and related areas are increasingly adopting management-by-objectives/indicator-based frameworks to protect resources and the quality of visitor experiences. Indicator-based frameworks rely on development of indicators and standards of quality, and research has been developed to measure visitor-based standards of quality. In this research approach, visitors to parks and related areas judge the acceptability of a range of recreation-related impacts to natural/cultural resources and the quality of the visitor experience. The purpose of this paper is to explore the strength and variability of the relationship between visitor-based standards of quality and existing conditions in parks and related areas. Data were derived from studies conducted in 11 U.S. national park system units between 1995 and 2002. Results indicated that visitor-based standards of quality are generally unrelated to existing conditions. Implications of these findings are explored for research on visitor-based standards of quality and related issues, and for the management of parks and outdoor recreation.

Norm Crystallization: Measurement and Comparative Analysis

Normative theory and methods have become increasingly important in outdoor recreation research and management as an approach to formulating standards of quality in parks and related areas. An important issue associated with this research is the level of agreement or consensus about social norms called crystallization. A new measure, Van der Eijks measure of agreement (A), is proposed and applied in this study. A test of the effect of potential independent variables on crystallization is also applied using a comparative analysis conducted across a number of studies administered in U.S. national parks. Study findings indicate a generally high level of crystallization regarding normative standards of quality and show several independent variables that influence crystallization, though the effects are generally small.

The Intersection of Race/Ethnicity and Gender in Occupational Segregation: Changes over Time in the Contemporary United States

In this article, we examine changes in the types of occupations that members of various racial/ethnic-gender groups have entered. We are interested in two trends that we believe may have contributed to differences in occupational concentration: budget reductions and policy changes in Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) enforcement procedures, and the continuing increases in womens educational attainment. Using whites, African Americans, and Hispanics in our analysis, we evaluate race and ethnic differences by gender, and gender differences by race and ethnicity; thus, we pay particular attention to the intersection of race/ethnicity and gender in these processes. Our results suggest that white men have maintained their advantage in the occupational hierarchy in the period under investigation, and that white women have made more progress than any other group. For women, educational investment reaps rewards, although these benefits continue to be unequal. At the same time, the rewards accruing to white men, above and beyond the additive effects of their race and gender, have not changed over time; white womens progress has not intruded on this. Instead, white womens progress is a result of changes in two additive effects: the cost of being female has declined over time and the white advantage has increased. To the extent that changes in EEOC policies have had a negative impact on occupational desegregation, the impact is racialized but not gendered.

Cultural Influence on Crowding Norms in Outdoor Recreation: A Comparative Analysis of Visitors to National Parks in Turkey and the United States

Formulation of standards of quality in parks and outdoor recreation can be guided by normative theory and related empirical methods. We apply this approach to measure the acceptability of a range of use levels in national parks in Turkey and the United States. Using statistical methods for comparing norm curves across contexts, we find significant differences among Americans, British, and Turkish respondents. In particular, American and British respondents were substantially less tolerant of seeing other visitors and demonstrated higher norm intensity than Turkish respondents. We discuss the role of culture in explaining these findings, paying particular attention to Turkey as a traditional “contact culture” and the conventional emphasis on solitude and escape in American environmental history and policy. We conclude with a number of recommendations to stimulate more research on the relationship between culture and outdoor recreation.

THE ETHNIC, RACE, AND GENDER GAPS IN WORKPLACE AUTHORITY: Changes over Time in the United States

We analyze factors explaining differences in hierarchical authority between men and women within and across categories of race and ethnicity in two time periods, finding that the processes leading to authority within the workplace operate differently by gender than by race or ethnicity. The demand-side factor, percentage of women in an occupation, helps explain authority differences between men and women in most groups. Supply-side factors, and, in white–black comparisons, occupational location, contribute to differences by race and ethnicity within genders. In the later period, education is particularly important for Hispanic men reflecting, we believe, the recent surge in immigration rates.

From Partnerships to Networks: New Approaches for Measuring U. S. National Heritage Area Effectiveness.

National Heritage Areas (NHAs) are an alternative and increasingly popular form of protected area management in the United States. NHAs seek to integrate environmental objectives with community and economic objectives at regional or landscape scales. NHA designations have increased rapidly in the last 20 years, generating a substantial need for evaluative information about (a) how NHAs work; (b) outcomes associated with the NHA process; and (c) the costs and benefits of investing public moneys into the NHA approach. Qualitative evaluation studies recently conducted at three NHAs have identified the importance of understanding network structure and function in the context of evaluating NHA management effectiveness. This article extends these case studies by examining quantitative network data from each of the sites. The authors analyze these data using both a descriptive approach and a statistically more robust approach known as exponential random graph modeling. Study findings indicate the presence of transitive structures and the absence of three-cycle structures in each of these networks. This suggests that these networks are relatively ‘‘open,’’ which may be desirable, given the uncertainty of the environments in which they operate. These findings also suggest, at least at the sites reported here, that the NHA approach may be an effective way to activate and develop networks of intersectoral organizational partners. Finally, this study demonstrates the utility of using quantitative network analysis to better understand the effectiveness of protected area management models that rely on partnership networks to achieve their intended outcomes.

Toward an Understanding of Citywide Urban Environmental Governance: An Examination of Stewardship Networks in Baltimore and Seattle

Efforts to create more sustainable cities are evident in the proliferation of sustainability policies in cities worldwide. It has become widely proposed that the success of these urban sustainability initiatives will require city agencies to partner with, and even cede authority to, organizations from other sectors and levels of government. Yet the resulting collaborative networks are often poorly understood, and the study of large whole networks has been a challenge for researchers. We believe that a better understanding of citywide environmental governance networks can inform evaluations of their effectiveness, thus contributing to improved environmental management. Through two citywide surveys in Baltimore and Seattle, we collected data on the attributes of environmental stewardship organizations and their network relationships. We applied missing data treatment approaches and conducted social network and comparative analyses to examine (a) the organizational composition of the network, and (b) how information and knowledge are shared throughout the network. Findings revealed similarities in the number of actors and their distribution across sectors, but considerable variation in the types and locations of environmental stewardship activities, and in the number and distribution of network ties in the networks of each city. We discuss the results and potential implications of network research for urban sustainability governance.

Standards of Quality for Parks and Protected Areas: Applying Normative Theory and Methods in U.S. National Parks

Indicators and standards of quality have become an important component of contemporary management frameworks designed to help protect park resources and the quality of the visitor experience. Normative theory and related empirical methods have been adapted from sociology and applied to surveys of park visitors and other stakeholders to help guide the formulation of standards of quality. This article reviews this growing body of research and identifies a number of important issues including norm prevalence, norm salience, alternative evaluative dimensions, question and response formats, norm congruence and validity, norm crystallization, the effect of existing conditions, visual research methods, and norm stability. We conclude by encouraging researchers to more explicitly link normative theory in recreation management to the cultures in which parks and protected areas are embedded.

Effects of Transportation on Racial/Ethnic Diversity of National Park Visitors

ABSTRACT The demographic composition of the United States is increasingly diverse, but racial/ethnic minority groups are substantially underrepresented in visiting national parks. Transportation is needed to provide access to national parks but may not be equally accessible to all groups in society. This study uses a general population survey of New York City residents to examine the role of transportation in visiting national parks by three racial/ethnic groups (Hispanic, Black, and White). Principle study variables were perceived barriers to visiting national parks and the importance of transportation-related incentives in encouraging visits to national parks. Study results identified three categories of barriers: comfort and safety, expense, and accessibility; Hispanics perceive higher levels of barriers than do Whites and Blacks. Transportation incentives may increase national park visitation, especially by Hispanics. Survey findings partially support the marginality and discrimination hypotheses, and suggest potentially effective strategies to increase park visitation by minority racial/ethnic groups.

Guest Editor's Introduction: New Directions in Social Policy in Asia and Europe

Daniel H. Krymkowski is a full professor in the Department of Sociology at the University of Vermont. Address correspondence to Daniel H. Krymkowski, Department of Sociology, 31 South Prospect Street, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405; e-mail: dkrymkow@uvm.edu. International Journal of Sociology, vol. 41, no. 3, Fall 2011, pp. 3–6.