Daniel H. Robinson

Inherited DNA-Repair Gene Mutations in Men with Metastatic Prostate Cancer

BACKGROUND Inherited mutations in DNA-repair genes such as BRCA2 are associated with increased risks of lethal prostate cancer. Although the prevalence of germline mutations in DNA-repair genes among men with localized prostate cancer who are unselected for family predisposition is insufficient to warrant routine testing, the frequency of such mutations in patients with metastatic prostate cancer has not been established. METHODS We recruited 692 men with documented metastatic prostate cancer who were unselected for family history of cancer or age at diagnosis. We isolated germline DNA and used multiplex sequencing assays to assess mutations in 20 DNA-repair genes associated with autosomal dominant cancer-predisposition syndromes. RESULTS A total of 84 germline DNA-repair gene mutations that were presumed to be deleterious were identified in 82 men (11.8%); mutations were found in 16 genes, including BRCA2 (37 men [5.3%]), ATM (11 [1.6%]), CHEK2 (10 [1.9% of 534 men with data]), BRCA1 (6 [0.9%]), RAD51D (3 [0.4%]), and PALB2 (3 [0.4%]). Mutation frequencies did not differ according to whether a family history of prostate cancer was present or according to age at diagnosis. Overall, the frequency of germline mutations in DNA-repair genes among men with metastatic prostate cancer significantly exceeded the prevalence of 4.6% among 499 men with localized prostate cancer (P<0.001), including men with high-risk disease, and the prevalence of 2.7% in the Exome Aggregation Consortium, which includes 53,105 persons without a known cancer diagnosis (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS In our multicenter study, the incidence of germline mutations in genes mediating DNA-repair processes among men with metastatic prostate cancer was 11.8%, which was significantly higher than the incidence among men with localized prostate cancer. The frequencies of germline mutations in DNA-repair genes among men with metastatic disease did not differ significantly according to age at diagnosis or family history of prostate cancer. (Funded by Stand Up To Cancer and others.).

Visual argument : graphic organizers are superior to outlines in improving learning from text

Most research on graphic organizers (i.e., figural organizations of text information) has failed to simulate actual classroom learning. Typically, studies have used short, poorly organized text, single graphic organizers, and immediate tests measuring only factual knowledge. Also, there is no convincing evidence that graphic organizers are better than outlines. Two experiments were conducted that represented attempts to address these problems in answering the question, What types of text information do graphic organizers and outlines help college students learn ? Results revealed that when given enough time, students studying graphic organizers learned more hierarchical and coordinate relations, and as a result, they were more successful in applying that knowledge and in writing integrated essays than students studying outlines or text alone. These findings are discussed in terms of efficient indexing through visual argument.

Getting Students "Partially" Involved in Note-Taking Using Graphic Organizers

Abstract Encoding benefits (DiVesta & Gray, 1972) of graphic-organizer and outline note-taking using spaced study and review (Robinson, Katayama, Dubois, & DeVaney, 1998) were investigated. In 2 40-min periods separated by 2 days, 117 undergraduates studied a chapter-length text along with a set of complete, partial, or skeletal graphic organizers or outlines. Two days later, the students reviewed their materials for 10 min and then completed factual and application tests. On the factual test, there was no effect for either study notes or amount of information. However, on the application test, graphic organizers were better than outlines and partial notes were better than complete notes. Having students take notes using partial graphic organizers may be preferable to giving them complete notes because of encoding benefits.

On the past and future of null hypothesis significance testing

Recent criticisms of null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) have appeared in wildlife research journals (Cherry 1998; Johnson 1999; Anderson et al. 2000, 2001; Guthery et al. 2001). In this essay, we discuss these criticisms with regard to both current usage of NHST and plausible future use. We suggest that the historical use of such procedures was reasonable and that current users might spend time profitably reading some of Fishers applied work. However, modifications to NHST, and to the interpretations of its outcomes, might better suit the needs of modern science. Our primary conclusion is that NHST most often is useful as an adjunct to other results (e.g., effect sizes) rather than as a stand-alone result. We cite some examples, however, where NHST can be profitably used alone. Last, we find considerable experimental support for a less dogmatic attitude toward the interpretation of the probability yielded from such procedures.

Graphic organizers as aids to text learning

Abstract In recent years, advances in computer software have made it possible for persons with little knowledge of text design to construct graphic organizers (GOs) with the intention of helping students learn more effectively from textbooks. Consequently, the use of GOs in textbooks has increased dramatically. Unfortunately, the guidelines used in constructing GOs have not been based on empirical evidence, but rather on the authors’ intuition. This is probably due to the lack of consensus among educators regarding what makes a GO effective, because GO research has been nonsystematic. This paper provides a rationale for the use of GOs, traces their history and development, reviews sixteen studies that have used GOs as text adjuncts, and, unlike other recent reviews of GOs, discusses limitations that have made GO research nonsystematic and provides suggestions for how future research may answer the question, “How should GOs be constructed for use in classrooms?”

Is Educational Intervention Research on the Decline

The authors examined intervention studies that appeared in 4 educational psychology journals (Cognition & Instruction, Contemporary Educational Psychology, Journal of Educational Psychology, Journal of Experimental Education) and the American Educational Research Journal (AERJ) in 1983 and from 1995 to 2004. The majority of studies included adults (age 18 and older) as participants, administered brief (less than 1 day) interventions, assessed intervention effects immediately following the intervention, and did not report treatment integrity. Most studies included multiple outcome measures and exhibited an increase in effect-size reporting from 4% in 1995 to 61% in 2004. The percentage of total articles based on randomized experiments decreased over the 21-year period in both the educational psychology journals (from 40% in 1983 to 34% in 1995 to 26% in 2004) and AERJ (from 33% to 17% to 4%). Limitations of the study and future research issues are discussed.

Research news and Comment: Reflections on Statistical and Substantive Significance, With a Slice of Replication

In this comment, we propose some modifications to Thompson’s (1996) recent suggestions for AERA editorial policy on statistical significance testing. First, we discuss the potential problems, both procedural and conceptual, that could arise from professional journals mandating the addition of the modifier “statistically” to “significant.” If language remains an issue of consequence, however, findings stemming from rejected null hypotheses could be termed “nonchance” to communicate simply and more precisely what it is that a statistical test reveals. Second, although asking authors to provide explicit effect-size information is both sensible and useful, we illustrate how effect sizes (like p values) can be misinterpreted and misused. Finally, in accord with Thompson, we argue that greater attention to replication should be encouraged in educational research. At the same time, we believe that internal replication analyses do not represent adequate substitutes for (or even close approximations to) external replication studies based on new, independent participants. With journals welcoming both constructed and literal replication studies, consumers of the educational research literature can concentrate less on the limited believability of one-time findings and more on the enhanced believability of repeatable and generalizable ones.

Shaping Up the Practice of Null Hypothesis Significance Testing

Recent criticisms of null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) have appeared in education and psychology research journals (e.g., Cohen, 1990 , 1994; Kupfersmid, 1988; Rosenthal, 1991; Rosnow & Rosenthal, 1989; Shaver, 1985; Sohn, 2000; Thompson, 1994 , 1997; see also Research in the Schools [1998]). In this article we discuss these criticisms for both current use of NHST and plausible future use. We suggest that the historical use of such procedures was reasonable and that current users might spend time profitably reading some of Fisher’s applied work. However, we also believe that modifications to NHST and to the interpretations of its outcomes might better suit the needs of modern science. Our primary conclusion is that NHST is most often useful as an adjunct to other results (e.g., effect sizes) rather than as a stand-alone result. We cite some examples, however, where NHST can be profitably used alone. Last, we find considerable experimental support for a less rigid attitude toward the interpretation of the probability yielded from such procedures.

Speed and Performance Differences among Computer-Based and Paper-Pencil Tests:

This study investigated the effect of several different modes of test administration on scores and completion times. In Experiment 1, paper-based assessment was compared to computer-based assessment. Undergraduates completed the computer-based assessment faster than the paper-based assessment, with no difference in scores. Experiment 2 assessed three different computer interfaces that provided students various levels of flexibility to change and review answers. No difference in scores was observed among the three modes, but students completed the least-flexible mode faster than the other two modes. It appears that less flexible test modes are faster and do not result in poorer performance than more flexible modes.

The Incidence of “Causal” Statements in Teaching-and-Learning Research Journals

The authors examined the methodologies of articles in teaching-and-learning research journals, published in 1994 and in 2004, and classified them as either intervention (based on researcher-manipulated variables) or nonintervention. Consistent with the findings of Hsieh et al., intervention research articles declined from 45% in 1994 to 33% in 2004. For nonintervention articles, the authors recorded the incidence of “causal” statements (e.g., if teachers/schools/parents did X, then student/child outcome Y would likely result). Nonintervention research articles containing causal statements increased from 34% in 1994 to 43% in 2004. It appears that at the same time intervention studies are becoming less prevalent in the teaching-and-learning research literature, researchers are more inclined to include causal statements in nonintervention studies.