Daniel P. Hawes

Social Capital in the Fifty States: Measuring State-Level Social Capital 1986-2004

The idea of social capital has had a powerful impact on the study of politics, policy, and social science at large. In recent years, scholars have paid increasing attention towards understanding what social capital is and exploring the direct and indirect consequences of living in high social capital environments. Much of what we know about the causes and effects of social capital is limited by the nature of data used regularly by scholars.Although the concept of social capital has been applied globally (Callahan 2005; Letki 2006; Putnam 1993; Tavits 2006; Warde et al. 2003), several works have focused on studying its role within in the context of the state and local politics in the United States (Carden, Courtmanche and Meiners 2009; Knack 2002; Hero 2003, 2007; Putnam 2000; Rice 2001; Tavits 2006). Current datasets offer us leverage in the study of social capital over time in the United States (Keele 2005) and on questions regarding static differences in the distribution of social capital across the states (Putnam 2000). The inability of scholars to know how social capital varies over time and across space limits the kinds of questions that can be asked. Static measures also pose a problem because mainly rival explanations of policy change, such as racial/ethnic diversity and political culture, are highly correlated with social capital. While culture is typically treated as a static concept, temporal shifts in racial/ethnic diversity do not always correspond with changes in social capital (see Hawes and Rocha 2011), allowing scholars the opportunity to establish the extent to which social connectedness alone creates shifts in political outcomes.In this paper, we offer a unique measure of social capital which varies by time and space. We rely sample data of over 20,000 individuals conducted biannually in the continuous 48 states by MediaMark Research Inc. (MRI), a marketing research firm. Although limited in some respects, the MediaMark data are able to construct measures that tap the non-attitudinal components of Putnam’s comprehensive social capital index. This data is available at the state level from 1986 through the present, allowing us to explore movement in these elements of social capital across the states over a twenty year time span.The idea of social capital has had a powerful impact on the study of politics, policy, and social science at large. Much of what we know about the causes and effects of social capital, however, is limited by the nature of data used regularly by scholars working in this area. Current data sets allow researchers to study changes in social capital over time at the national level and static differences in the distribution of social capital across the states. The inability of scholars to know how social capital varies over time and across space limits the kinds of questions that can be asked. In this article, we use sample data of more than 20,000 individuals conducted biannually in the continuous 48 states by the marketing research firm MediaMark Research, Inc. to create a unique measure of social capital that varies across time and space. These data are available at the state level from 1986 through 2004.

Social Capital, Racial Diversity, and Equity: Evaluating the Determinants of Equity in the United States

Robert Putnam’s work suggests social capital is compatible with social equality, while Rodney Hero argues the two are inversely related. Hero and Putnam, however, are limited in their arguments because they have only cross-sectional data and their theoretical arguments imply dynamic relationships over time. We create a state-level social capital index and a measure of racial diversity that varies over time and across states. We use multivariate models to determine whether social capital or racial diversity better predicts levels of policy equity. We find that social capital detrimentally affects policy equity and racial diversity is positively associated with policy equity.

Social Capital, Racial Context, and Incarcerations in the American States:

This article examines the differential effects of social capital on policy equity in state outcomes. Specifically, it explores the relationship between social capital and incarceration rates in the American states paying particular attention to racial disparities in incarceration rates. Building on work by Hero, I present a theoretical explanation and empirical support for how social capital operates differently under different racial contexts. I argue that social capital enhances social empathy in homogeneous contexts and social controls in diverse contexts. Using state-level longitudinal data on the contiguous states, I find that social capital is positively associated with incarcerations, but only for African Americans. Furthermore, the effects of social capital appear to be conditional on racial context where this relationship is stronger as minority group size increases.

Representation, Salience, and Responsiveness to Latino Student Performance

This article is interested in the implications political representation and issue salience have for political attentiveness to group-specific (Latino) policy failures. Using data from Texas school districts, this article examines the role descriptive political representation plays in the likelihood of recognizing and responding to policy outcomes that disproportionately negatively affect Latino students. The empirical results suggest that deficiencies in Latino student education are significantly more likely to be recognized if Latinos are present on the school board. This suggests that political representation plays a crucial role in the political assessment process, particularly when the policy is not universally salient.

Give Us Your Tired, Your Poor and We Might Buy Them Dinner: Social Capital, Immigration, and Welfare Generosity in the American States:

A long-standing debate persists regarding how social capital relates to diversity and inequality in the American states. Putnam argues social capital leads to greater equality and tolerance; however, others find that it increases racial inequality. We build on Soss, Fording, and Schram’s Racial Classification Model (RCM) and theorize that social capital enhances social trust and empathy in homogeneous contexts and favors paternalistic and punitive social controls in diverse contexts. We test this using the case of immigration and welfare generosity following the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) of 1996. Using state-level data from 1997 to 2009, we find that under conditions of low immigration, social capital is associated with increased social trust and empathy; however, as immigration increases, social capital pivots toward favoring mechanisms of social control. Specifically, social capital increases Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) cash benefit levels, but only when immigration levels are low. In high-immigration contexts, social capital is associated with decreased welfare generosity.