Daniel S. McConnell

Prospects for direct social perception: a multi-theoretical integration to further the science of social cognition

In this paper we suggest that differing approaches to the science of social cognition mirror the arguments between radical embodied and traditional approaches to cognition. We contrast the use in social cognition of theoretical inference and mental simulation mechanisms with approaches emphasizing a direct perception of others’ mental states. We build from a recent integrative framework unifying these divergent perspectives through the use of dual-process theory and supporting social neuroscience research. Our elaboration considers two complementary notions of direct perception: one primarily stemming from ecological psychology and the other from enactive cognition theory. We use this as the foundation from which to offer an account of the informational basis for social information and assert a set of research propositions to further the science of social cognition. In doing so, we point out how perception of the minds of others can be supported in some cases by lawful information, supporting direct perception of social affordances and perhaps, mental states, and in other cases by cues that support indirect perceptual inference. Our goal is to extend accounts of social cognition by integrating advances across disciplines to provide a multi-level and multi-theoretic description that can advance this field and offer a means through which to reconcile radical embodied and traditional approaches to cognitive neuroscience.

The effects of immersiveness and future VR expectations on subjec-tive-experiences during an educational 360° video

Virtual reality may potentially create immersive experiences compelling people to believe they are physically present in a virtual space. This may augment learning by increasing interest in the learning content. However, not all technology is equal. Current devices range from limited devices to next generation technology. At the extremes, devices may distract users from learning content by presenting a sub-optimal learning experience which may be affected by expectations of VR. Participants viewed a 360-degree educational video with the goal of learning as much as possible. Each participant used one of three devices: a smartphone, Google Card-board, or Oculus Rift DK2. Overall, more immersive devices induced greater feelings of presence. However, we failed to support the sub-optimal experience hypothesis. We also found that greater expectations and reported feelings of presence led to less information recalled during the simulation, potentially indicating the novelty of VR experiences may overwhelm learners.

Describing the User Experience of Wearable Fitness Technology through Online Product Reviews

Regular exercise has many health benefits, however a major problem in the United States is that Americans do not exercise enough to reap these advantages. Although there are many ways that one can be motivated to exercise, the use of wearable technologies such as fitness tracking devices show great promise as an individual, and cost effective solution. On the other hand, many people who try out these devices return them leading to lower than idea acceptance rates for these devices. We examined online product reviews for wearable fitness devices in order to discover which factors led to product acceptance or rejection. We performed a qualitative analysis of user reviews across many websites and devices followed by a quantitative exploratory analysis using stepwise multiple regression predicting users’ experience. Overall, our results support that four high-level themes: usability, trust, motivation, and wearability determined a user’s experience.

Evaluating input device usability as a function of task difficulty in a tracking task

Game controllers are emerging as a preferred choice for the manual control of unmanned vehicles, but an understanding of their usability characteristics has yet to emerge. We compared the usability of an Xbox 360 game controller in a dual task situation using MATB II to the traditional joystick and keyboard interface in two experiments. In the first experiment, performance with the game controller was associated with fewer tracking errors. In a second experiment, we trained users on the devices, and found that even after training the game controller was still associated with fewer tracking errors as well as higher usability and lower workload ratings. These results are consistent with the idea that game controllers are highly usable input devices and do not require high mental workload to operate, thus making them suitable for complex control tasks. Practitioner Summary: Game controllers are being used more often for non-gaming purposes include teleoperation of unmanned vehicles. This research investigates the utility of such devices for complex tasks, especially following extensive practice. The game controller was associated with lower workload and fewer errors, indicating its suitability for complex control tasks.

Comparing the Performance, Workload, and Usability of a Gamepad and Joystick in a Complex Task

Complex human system interface systems such as unmanned vehicles utilize controls that range from standard joystick and keyboard interfaces to Xbox controllers. However, few research studies have been conducted to compare Xbox controllers with other types of interfaces, showing mixed results between those controllers. The current study compared the performance of a joystick and keyboard interface with that of an Xbox controller in both a low and high difficulty task. The results indicate that the Xbox controller had lower tracking errors and trended to lower workload and a slightly higher usability score as measured by the system usability scale (SUS). An interaction between difficulty and controller was not found, however allowing for a longer practice time with the interfaces may have shown significant differences which are planned in a future study. Overall these results indicate favorable results that an Xbox controller may be a viable control interface for complex human system interaction tasks.

The role of individual differences on perceptions of wearable fitness device trust, usability, and motivational impact

Lack of physical activity is a severe health concern in the United States with fewer than half of all Americans meeting the recommended weekly physical activity guidelines. Although wearable fitness devices can be effective in motivating people to be active, consumers are abandoning this technology soon after purchase. We examined the impact of several user (i.e. personality, age, computer self-efficacy, physical activity level) and device characteristics (trust, usability, and motivational affordances) on the behavioral intentions to use a wearable fitness device. Novice users completed a brief interaction with a fitness device similar to a first purchase experience before completing questionnaires about their interaction. We found computer self-efficacy, physical activity level, as well as personality traits indirectly increased the desire to use a fitness device and influenced the saliency of perceived motivational affordances. Additionally, trust, usability, and perceived motivational affordances were associated with increased intentions to use fitness devices.

Searching for Affective and Cognitive Restoration: Examining the Restorative Effects of Casual Video Game Play

Objective: We investigated the effects of a passive break, relaxation activity, and casual video game on affect, stress, engagement, and cognitive performance. Background: Reducing stress and improving cognitive performance is critical across many domains. Previous studies investigated taking a break, relaxation techniques, or playing a game; however, these methods have not been compared within a single experiment. Method: Participants completed a baseline affective and cognitive assessment (ACA), which included the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, shortened version of the Dundee Stress State Questionnaire, and backward digit-span. Next, participants completed a vigilance task, followed by another ACA. Participants were then assigned at random to complete a break or relaxation activity or play a casual video game, followed by a final ACA. Results: Participants who played the casual video game exhibited greater engagement and affective restoration than the relaxation condition. The break condition slightly decreased affect and prevented cognitive restoration. Conclusion: Playing a casual video game even briefly can restore individuals’ affective abilities, making it a suitable activity to restore mood in response to stress. However, future research is needed to find activities capable of cognitive restoration. Application: Many activities in life require sustained cognitive demand, which are stressful and decrease performance, especially for workers in performance-critical domains. Our research suggests some leisure activities are better than others for restoring fatigued affective processes.

The Effects of Computer User Handedness on a Mouse-Clicking Task

The present study examined computer user handedness on a motor task using Fitts’s Law. Results indicated that right-handed participants were significantly faster than the left-handed participants when performing the motor task as measured by the Index of Performance. This finding could be partially attributed to the mouse design that is inconsistent with differential user handedness. Conversely, this finding could also be partially attributed to the degree of training left-handed participants received relative to their right-handed counterparts. The right-handed users outperformed their counterpart left-handed users perhaps because of physical design biases or relative degree of training. The present findings have practical implications for computer input device such as game controllers, joysticks, or mice that are physically designed for right-handed users.

Visual and proprioceptive integration of the virtual and real fingertips

Sensitivity to sensory conflicts involving visual and proprioceptive mismatches of fingertip position was explored for a virtual workspace displayed through a stereoscopic head mounted display. The virtual fingertip appeared either coincident with the actual fingertip, or displaced 2, 3, 4, or 5cm in a direction parallel to either the sagittal or frontal planes. Observers did not reliably detect displacements smaller than 5cm. Sensitivity to 5cm displacements varied across the workspace, as a function of the direction of the displacement, and between the right and left hands. Implications for proprioceptive localization of the hand are discussed, as well implications for performance in virtual environments.

Investigating learning outcomes and subjective experiences in 360-degree videos

Abstract Virtual Reality experiences, particularly the 360-degree video, have become popular in recent years for creating immersive educational experiences. However, much is still unknown regarding the educational effectiveness of this medium. Here we examined pre-to-post changes in well-being, simulator sickness, and learning outcomes across four devices of varying levels of immersion: a smartphone, Google Cardboard, Oculus Rift DK2, and Oculus CV1 using a space-themed 360° educational video. More immersive devices induced greater induction of place illusion, greater positive affect, and better learning outcomes while demonstrating low prevalence of simulator sickness. Greater immersion was also associated with an increased interest in learning more about the videos subject-matter. On the other hand, less immersive technology led to increased simulation sickness which may have led to suboptimal educational experiences. Overall, we found support for the hypothesis that highly immersive experiences using 360° videos provide positive educational experiences while minimizing simulator sickness.