Michael A. Rupp

Intelligent Agent Transparency in Human–Agent Teaming for Multi-UxV Management

Objective: We investigated the effects of level of agent transparency on operator performance, trust, and workload in a context of human–agent teaming for multirobot management. Background: Participants played the role of a heterogeneous unmanned vehicle (UxV) operator and were instructed to complete various missions by giving orders to UxVs through a computer interface. An intelligent agent (IA) assisted the participant by recommending two plans—a top recommendation and a secondary recommendation—for every mission. Method: A within-subjects design with three levels of agent transparency was employed in the present experiment. There were eight missions in each of three experimental blocks, grouped by level of transparency. During each experimental block, the IA was incorrect three out of eight times due to external information (e.g., commander’s intent and intelligence). Operator performance, trust, workload, and usability data were collected. Results: Results indicate that operator performance, trust, and perceived usability increased as a function of transparency level. Subjective and objective workload data indicate that participants’ workload did not increase as a function of transparency. Furthermore, response time did not increase as a function of transparency. Conclusion: Unlike previous research, which showed that increased transparency resulted in increased performance and trust calibration at the cost of greater workload and longer response time, our results support the benefits of transparency for performance effectiveness without additional costs. Application: The current results will facilitate the implementation of IAs in military settings and will provide useful data to the design of heterogeneous UxV teams.

The effects of immersiveness and future VR expectations on subjec-tive-experiences during an educational 360° video

Virtual reality may potentially create immersive experiences compelling people to believe they are physically present in a virtual space. This may augment learning by increasing interest in the learning content. However, not all technology is equal. Current devices range from limited devices to next generation technology. At the extremes, devices may distract users from learning content by presenting a sub-optimal learning experience which may be affected by expectations of VR. Participants viewed a 360-degree educational video with the goal of learning as much as possible. Each participant used one of three devices: a smartphone, Google Card-board, or Oculus Rift DK2. Overall, more immersive devices induced greater feelings of presence. However, we failed to support the sub-optimal experience hypothesis. We also found that greater expectations and reported feelings of presence led to less information recalled during the simulation, potentially indicating the novelty of VR experiences may overwhelm learners.

Describing the User Experience of Wearable Fitness Technology through Online Product Reviews

Regular exercise has many health benefits, however a major problem in the United States is that Americans do not exercise enough to reap these advantages. Although there are many ways that one can be motivated to exercise, the use of wearable technologies such as fitness tracking devices show great promise as an individual, and cost effective solution. On the other hand, many people who try out these devices return them leading to lower than idea acceptance rates for these devices. We examined online product reviews for wearable fitness devices in order to discover which factors led to product acceptance or rejection. We performed a qualitative analysis of user reviews across many websites and devices followed by a quantitative exploratory analysis using stepwise multiple regression predicting users’ experience. Overall, our results support that four high-level themes: usability, trust, motivation, and wearability determined a user’s experience.

Evaluating input device usability as a function of task difficulty in a tracking task

Game controllers are emerging as a preferred choice for the manual control of unmanned vehicles, but an understanding of their usability characteristics has yet to emerge. We compared the usability of an Xbox 360 game controller in a dual task situation using MATB II to the traditional joystick and keyboard interface in two experiments. In the first experiment, performance with the game controller was associated with fewer tracking errors. In a second experiment, we trained users on the devices, and found that even after training the game controller was still associated with fewer tracking errors as well as higher usability and lower workload ratings. These results are consistent with the idea that game controllers are highly usable input devices and do not require high mental workload to operate, thus making them suitable for complex control tasks. Practitioner Summary: Game controllers are being used more often for non-gaming purposes include teleoperation of unmanned vehicles. This research investigates the utility of such devices for complex tasks, especially following extensive practice. The game controller was associated with lower workload and fewer errors, indicating its suitability for complex control tasks.

Comparing the Performance, Workload, and Usability of a Gamepad and Joystick in a Complex Task

Complex human system interface systems such as unmanned vehicles utilize controls that range from standard joystick and keyboard interfaces to Xbox controllers. However, few research studies have been conducted to compare Xbox controllers with other types of interfaces, showing mixed results between those controllers. The current study compared the performance of a joystick and keyboard interface with that of an Xbox controller in both a low and high difficulty task. The results indicate that the Xbox controller had lower tracking errors and trended to lower workload and a slightly higher usability score as measured by the system usability scale (SUS). An interaction between difficulty and controller was not found, however allowing for a longer practice time with the interfaces may have shown significant differences which are planned in a future study. Overall these results indicate favorable results that an Xbox controller may be a viable control interface for complex human system interaction tasks.

The role of individual differences on perceptions of wearable fitness device trust, usability, and motivational impact

Lack of physical activity is a severe health concern in the United States with fewer than half of all Americans meeting the recommended weekly physical activity guidelines. Although wearable fitness devices can be effective in motivating people to be active, consumers are abandoning this technology soon after purchase. We examined the impact of several user (i.e. personality, age, computer self-efficacy, physical activity level) and device characteristics (trust, usability, and motivational affordances) on the behavioral intentions to use a wearable fitness device. Novice users completed a brief interaction with a fitness device similar to a first purchase experience before completing questionnaires about their interaction. We found computer self-efficacy, physical activity level, as well as personality traits indirectly increased the desire to use a fitness device and influenced the saliency of perceived motivational affordances. Additionally, trust, usability, and perceived motivational affordances were associated with increased intentions to use fitness devices.

Searching for Affective and Cognitive Restoration: Examining the Restorative Effects of Casual Video Game Play

Objective: We investigated the effects of a passive break, relaxation activity, and casual video game on affect, stress, engagement, and cognitive performance. Background: Reducing stress and improving cognitive performance is critical across many domains. Previous studies investigated taking a break, relaxation techniques, or playing a game; however, these methods have not been compared within a single experiment. Method: Participants completed a baseline affective and cognitive assessment (ACA), which included the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, shortened version of the Dundee Stress State Questionnaire, and backward digit-span. Next, participants completed a vigilance task, followed by another ACA. Participants were then assigned at random to complete a break or relaxation activity or play a casual video game, followed by a final ACA. Results: Participants who played the casual video game exhibited greater engagement and affective restoration than the relaxation condition. The break condition slightly decreased affect and prevented cognitive restoration. Conclusion: Playing a casual video game even briefly can restore individuals’ affective abilities, making it a suitable activity to restore mood in response to stress. However, future research is needed to find activities capable of cognitive restoration. Application: Many activities in life require sustained cognitive demand, which are stressful and decrease performance, especially for workers in performance-critical domains. Our research suggests some leisure activities are better than others for restoring fatigued affective processes.

Insights into Human-Agent Teaming: Intelligent Agent Transparency and Uncertainty

This paper discusses two studies testing the effects of agent transparency in joint cognitive systems involving supervisory control and decision-making. Specifically, we examine the impact of agent transparency on operator performance (decision accuracy), response time, perceived workload, perceived usability of the agent, and operator trust in the agent. Transparency has a positive impact on operator performance, usability, and trust, yet the depiction of uncertainty has potentially negative effects on usability and trust. Guidelines and considerations for displaying transparency in joint cognitive systems are discussed.

A Predictive Model for Use of an Assistive Robotic Manipulator: Human Factors Versus Performance in Pick-and-Place/Retrieval Tasks

The goal of this study was to model the important individual differences to predict a users performance when operating an assistive robotic manipulator for a general population. Prior research done led to the identification of ten potential human factors to be observed including dexterity (gross and fine), spatial abilities (orientation and visualization), visual acuity in each eye, visual perception, depth perception, reaction time, and working memory. Eighty-nine individuals completed a test battery of potential human factors and, then, completed several tasks using a robotic manipulator designed to simulate find-and-fetch/pick-and-place tasks. During interaction with the robot, time on task, number of moves, and number of moves per minute were recorded. We successfully developed statistical models predicting performance that revealed several important human factors. Speed of information processing, spatial ability, dexterity, and working memory were all seen to be significant predictors of task performance. For time on task, linear and polynomial models showed roughly similar predictive performance on unseen test data achieving root-mean-square percentage error of about 7.3%; for number of moves per minute, a polynomial model was best with 9.1% error; and for number of moves, a linear model was best with 12.8% error.

Individual Differences in Video Gaming: Defining Hardcore Video Gamers

The purpose of this study is two-fold: 1) replicate the results of Phan, Jardina, Hoyle, and Chaparro (2012), and 2) extend their work on video gamers by understanding how female and male hardcore gamers differ from those who play casually, as well as examine the differences between hardcore gamers. Two hundred and twenty-five undergraduate students completed an online survey related to gaming behaviors, technology usage, and demographics. The outcomes of our study aligned with a majority of the findings of Phan and colleagues (2012). However, we extend these results by explaining the differences between females and males who play often (e.g., hardcore) and those who play occasionally (e.g., casually). The results indicated that men were more likely to be hardcore gamers than women. Hardcore female and hardcore male gamers did not significantly differ on most of the outcome measures. The implications of these results will be discussed at greater length.