David A. Ward

Self-Control and Crime/Deviance: Cognitive vs. Behavioral Measures

Using survey data, various measures of self-control, based respectively on cognitive and behavioral indicators, are compared in their ability to predict eight measures of crime/deviance. The results show that either type of measure produces supportive evidence for the theory, and the behavioral measures provide no better prediction than do the cognitive measures. Unlike cognitive type indicators, and contrary to the implications of the theory, different types of crime-analogous, imprudent behaviors are not highly interrelated, making it difficult to develop reliable behavioral measures. These results suggest that general support for self-control theory would likely not be any greater if all researchers had used behaviorally based measures, as recommended by the authors of the theory. Improving the level of prediction to the point where self-control could claim to be the master variable, as envisioned by its proponents, does not seem to rest on a shift to behaviorally based measures. Instead, improvements in the theory itself, particularly the incorporation of contingencies, appears to offer more promise.

Gender and Dishonesty

Abstract Prior studies have shown that women are less likely than men to be dishonest when confronted with opportunities to cheat. The most common explanation for this finding is sex-role socialization theory: Women are socialized to obey the rules, whereas socialization for men is less binding in this respect. Even so, some women do cheat when given the opportunity. Hence, a theory is needed that accounts for the fact that women engage in dishonest behavior in spite of the restraining forces of internalized normative expectations. Using American college students as subjects, the study examined the relationship between excuse-making tendencies and actual cheating, while controlling for sex. The findings showed that women were significantly more likely to engage in excuse making prior to cheating than were men.

Capacity for Self-Control and Individuals' Interest in Exercising Self-Control

We identify and elaborate a conceptual distinction between capability for self-control and the desire to exercise it, and employ data from a city survey to explore the empirical viability of such a differentiation. Separate scales measuring ability and desire to exercise self-control both prove to be significant and moderately strong predictors of several measures of criminal/deviant behavior, showing independent, cumulative, and interactive relationships with each other. For some measures of crime/deviance, self-control capability is most effective when the individuals interest in exercising self-control is low but its effect is greatly reduced or eliminated when desire to exercise self-control desire is high. Combinations of capability for self-control and interest in exercising it prove to be particularly good predictors of the absolute level of misbehavior.

Self-Esteem and Dishonest Behavior Revisited

Abstract Research within the framework of cognitive consistency theory has generally shown that high self-esteem is a deterrent to dishonest behavior. The degree to which this relationship holds across subject sex is unclear, however, because available studies have produced contradictory findings. The present study examined whether the esteem/honesty relationship would be specified by subject sex when focusing on a behavior that is unquestionably more dishonest than behavior studied in prior research, namely, actual cheating on a classroom exam. The findings indicated a significant deterrent effect of high self-esteem for women but not for men. The results are interpreted as supporting the sex-role socialization explanation advanced by Mussen, Rutherford, Harris, and Keasey (1970), who found similar results in a more contrived experimental arrangement.

Prison treatment and parole survival : an empirical assessment

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IQ and delinquency: A test of two competing explanations

In the past, sociologists either dismissed or ignored the well-established empirical relationship between IQ and juvenile delinquency. More recently, however, they have come to accept the IQ/JD connection but now debate the most valid explanation for it. Some have advanced what we characterized as a “school performance” model, while others adhere to what may be called a “school reaction” model. The major bone of contention between the competing models is over the school variables thought to mediate the IQ/JD relationship. In this study, we specified the most dominant versions of the competing models as well as a model integrating the concepts of each. Using three waves of data from the Youth in Transition project, we first estimated parameters for each of the competing models and then parameters for the integrated model. Considered independently, each model was supported by the data. However, when each of the separate models was forced to take into account the explanatory contribution of its competitor, only the school performance model was supported. Implications of the findings for schooling and delinquency are discussed.

Deterrence or labeling: The effects of informal sanctions

A structural model incorporating the effects on subsequent deviance of reactions to previous deviance suggested by both the labeling and specific deterrence arguments, along with other logical effects necessary for correct specification, is formulated and estimated using data concerning peer reactions to classroom cheating. The results are consistent with the traditional labeling argument and contrary to the model of specific deterrence. However, the data suggest that subsequent deviance can also result from the direct effects of initial deviance and from the severity of others’ reactions independently of labeling. At best, one can conclude only that labeling is one among a number of processes by which sanctions influence recidivism.

Modeling the Deterrent Effects of Punishment

Nonexperimental (homicide) and experimental data are used to study the effects of the certainty and severity of punishment. Many deterrence researchers, working without systematic theory of how punishments should operate to influence behavior, have opted for a simple additive model of certainty and severity. However, a satisfaction balance model-a social psychological theory representing a modification of the matching equation and positing interactive effects of certainty and severity-fits both sets of data well and substantially better than an additive model. The implications of the satisfaction balance model for a theory of deterrence are discussed

The interaction of age with the correlates and causes of crime

We use data from a survey covering ages 15–94 to test the Hirschi/Gottfredson hypothesis that the correlates and causes of crime do not interact with age. These data reveal some nonchance interaction between age and demographic and theoretical predictors of criminal behavior that is localized in specific age categories and around particular variables and/or offenses. Overall, however, such interaction does not appear to be substantial, nor does it seem to have important consequences for generalizing from age restricted samples, particularly where generalization is of the most common type-from youth samples to adults. Therefore, despite some results contrary to a strict assertion that the causes and correlates of crime are the same for all ages, our findings support the thrust of the Hirschi/Gottfredson interaction hypothesis.

Some Correlates of Staff Ideology in the Prison

In 1962, a group of U.C.L.A. sociologists conducted a survey of staff members of the California Department of Corrections. Data were gathered on staff attitudes in relation to job and insti tutional variation. Factor analytic reduction of 28 items measur ing authoritarian orientation, preference on severity of penalties, optimism or pessimism regarding treatment outcome, and pre ferred social distance vis-à-vis parolees, resulted in measures of authoritarianism, pessimism, social distance, and recommenda tions regarding treatment programs when security is affected. Cross tabulations of the factoral measures with the respondents job and education were consistent with the hypothesis that cus todial jobs were more traditional in outlook than treatment positions. It was expected that differences in institutional setting would have an influence on staff views of management of inmates and probable outcome of treatment. To test this assumption, eight prisons were ranked on selected characteristics of their inmate populations according to age, criminal history, and prison be havior. Four types of prisons were delineated based on various combinations of these characteristics. It was hypothesized that staffs from institutions housing a rela tively large proportion of inmates involved in serious prison in cidents would be more authoritarian, pessimistic and distant to ward inmates than staffs at institutions with less volatile inmates. Also, the staffs at institutions holding older inmates with histories of prior commitments and parole violations would be more tra ditional in outlook than staffs at other institutions. Mean values of scores, combining all jobs, were averaged for each pair of prisons representing the four types of prisons. The results only partially confirm the hypothesis. All four scores showed significant differences by institution when tabulated sep arately. Pessimism is highest in prisons housing younger inmates with little prior confinement and few incidents. Readiness to withhold treatment is highest among prisons for younger (not older) men with incident rates. However, authoritarianism and social distance scores varied as predicted. Within prisons, jobs continue to differ significantly in expressed attitudes. The finding that pessimism is characteristic of prisons with young offenders and few incidents indicates a need for further study of institutional contexts, beyond the scope of this survey.