Charles R. Tittle

Testing the Core Empirical Implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime

In A General Theory of Crime, Gottfredson and Hirschi propose that low self-control, in interaction with criminal opportunity, is the major cause of crime. The research reported in this article attempts to test this argument while closely following the nominal definitions presented by Gottfredson and Hirschi. A factor analysis of items designed to measure low self-control is consistent with their contention that the trait is unidimensional. Further, the proposed interaction effect is found for self-reported acts of both fraud and force (their definition of crime). Inconsistent with the theory are (a) the finding that criminal opportunity has a significant main effect, beyond its interaction with low self-control, on self-reported crime and (b) the substantial proportion of variance in crime left unexplained by the theoretical variables. Suggestions are offered for modifying and expanding the theory.

Low Self-Control and Imprudent Behavior

Gottfredson and HirschisA General Theory of Crime contends that individual differences in involvement in criminal and analogous behavior are due largely to individual differences in the personality trait they call low self-control. Among the various behaviors considered analogous to crime are imprudent behaviors such as smoking, drinking, and gambling. This research explores the generality of Gottfredson and Hirschis theory by examining the link between low self-control and these imprudent behaviors. The results are mixed. In support of the theory, the data reveal a modest but significant effect of a scale designed to capture the various components of low self-control on an index of imprudent behavior. A more detailed analysis, however, reveals that some of the components of low self-control, specifically those probably linked to low intelligence, detract from the scales predictive power. In fact, one of the components, risk-seeking, is more predictive than the more inclusive scale. Furthermore, one of the imprudent acts, smoking, appears to be unaffected by low self-control. These contradictory findings suggest the need for theoretical refinements.

THE MYTH OF SOCIAL CLASS AND CRIMINALITY: AN EMPIRICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE*

Thirty-five studies examining the relationship between social class and crime/delinquency are reduced to comparable statistics using instances where the relationship was studied for specific categories of age, sex, race, place of residence, data type, or offense as units of analysis. The findings from 363 instances are summarized and patterns are identified. The overall results show only a slight negative relationship between class and criminality, with self-report studies reflecting lower associations than official statistics studies. Moreover, analysis demonstrates a clear historical decline in magnitude of association to the point where both self-report and official statistics studies done in the current decade find no class variation. This historical trend is shown to be due to changes in the findings from studies using official statistics as indicators of criminality. Alternative interpretations are discussed, but all lead to serious doubts about the adequacy of theories of deviance that contain assumptions of class differences. (abstract Adapted from Source: American Sociological Review, 1978. Copyright

Control balance : toward a general theory of deviance

The problem with simple theories features of adequate theory conventional methods of theory building theoretical integration what is to be explained the concepts of control-balance theory the causal process of control-balance theory contingencies for the central causal process compatibility of the theory with the evidence integration and critique.

Self-Control and Crime/Deviance: Cognitive vs. Behavioral Measures

Using survey data, various measures of self-control, based respectively on cognitive and behavioral indicators, are compared in their ability to predict eight measures of crime/deviance. The results show that either type of measure produces supportive evidence for the theory, and the behavioral measures provide no better prediction than do the cognitive measures. Unlike cognitive type indicators, and contrary to the implications of the theory, different types of crime-analogous, imprudent behaviors are not highly interrelated, making it difficult to develop reliable behavioral measures. These results suggest that general support for self-control theory would likely not be any greater if all researchers had used behaviorally based measures, as recommended by the authors of the theory. Improving the level of prediction to the point where self-control could claim to be the master variable, as envisioned by its proponents, does not seem to rest on a shift to behaviorally based measures. Instead, improvements in the theory itself, particularly the incorporation of contingencies, appears to offer more promise.

Crime Rates and Legal Sanctions

Certainty and severity of punishment for crime are indexed for the states of the U.S., and are related to crime rates. Strong and consistent negative associations are observed between certainty of punishment and crime rates, while a negative association is observed between severity of punishment and crime rates only for homicide. Variations in crime rates by different degrees of certainty and severity of punishment are examined. The observed patterns are discussed and possible explanations are offered. It is concluded that sociologists must take the idea of deterrence seriously and seek to clarify the relationship between various characteristics of reaction to deviance and rates of deviance.

Moral Appeal, Sanction Threat, and Deviance: An Experimental Test

This study represents an experimental test of deterrence hypotheses. The relative effects of a moral appeal and a sanction threat on college classroom cheating were assessed. The moral appeal was found to have no effect, but a clear and substantial impact was observed for the sanction threat. The sanction threat was found to be most effective in deterring cheating among females and least effective among those who had the greatest incentive to cheat. The applicability of the findings to deterrence theory is discussed.

Attitude measurement and prediction of behavior: an evaluation of conditions and measurement techniques.

The relation of attitude measures to other behavior continues to be problematic. This paper reanalyzes the issue from a methodological point of view. Reconsideration of available evidence suggests that the degree of correspondence observed is at least a function of (1) the measurement technique used, (2) the extent to which the criterion behavior constitutes action within the range of common experience, and (3) the degree to which the criterion behavior represents a repetitive behavioral configuration. Additional data are brought to bear on the issue with the above considerations in mind. Moderate associations are observed between measured attitude and behavior patterns. The magnitudes of these associations are found to vary with the scale construction technique employed.

Religion and Deviance among Adult Catholics: A Test of the "Moral Communities" Hypothesis

This study tested multi-level models that represented relationships among individual-level and community-level measures of religiosity and measures of deviant behavior that individuals reported they would be likely to commit. Data came from 2,667 adult Catholics surveyed as part of the Notre Dame Study of Catholic Parish Life. Results from multivariate analyses supported the argument that the level of religiosity within a given social context affects projected deviance, although there was no evidence of any substantial interaction between personaland communitylevel religiosity. Results also suggested that contextual effects are not necessarily consistent across all types of deviance.

Capacity for Self-Control and Individuals' Interest in Exercising Self-Control

We identify and elaborate a conceptual distinction between capability for self-control and the desire to exercise it, and employ data from a city survey to explore the empirical viability of such a differentiation. Separate scales measuring ability and desire to exercise self-control both prove to be significant and moderately strong predictors of several measures of criminal/deviant behavior, showing independent, cumulative, and interactive relationships with each other. For some measures of crime/deviance, self-control capability is most effective when the individuals interest in exercising self-control is low but its effect is greatly reduced or eliminated when desire to exercise self-control desire is high. Combinations of capability for self-control and interest in exercising it prove to be particularly good predictors of the absolute level of misbehavior.