David Banister

Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: urban land transport.

We used Comparative Risk Assessment methods to estimate the health effects of alternative urban land transport scenarios for two settings-London, UK, and Delhi, India. For each setting, we compared a business-as-usual 2030 projection (without policies for reduction of greenhouse gases) with alternative scenarios-lower-carbon-emission motor vehicles, increased active travel, and a combination of the two. We developed separate models that linked transport scenarios with physical activity, air pollution, and risk of road traffic injury. In both cities, we noted that reduction in carbon dioxide emissions through an increase in active travel and less use of motor vehicles had larger health benefits per million population (7332 disability-adjusted life-years [DALYs] in London, and 12 516 in Delhi in 1 year) than from the increased use of lower-emission motor vehicles (160 DALYs in London, and 1696 in Delhi). However, combination of active travel and lower-emission motor vehicles would give the largest benefits (7439 DALYs in London, 12 995 in Delhi), notably from a reduction in the number of years of life lost from ischaemic heart disease (10-19% in London, 11-25% in Delhi). Although uncertainties remain, climate change mitigation in transport should benefit public health substantially. Policies to increase the acceptability, appeal, and safety of active urban travel, and discourage travel in private motor vehicles would provide larger health benefits than would policies that focus solely on lower-emission motor vehicles.

Transport investment and economic development

Acknowledgements. Dedication. Part 1: Objectives and Scope. Background and Objectives. Scope of Analysis: Definitions, Approach and Methodological Framework. Part 2: Contemporary Issues. Transport Infrastructure Investment. The Evolving Economy. Social and Environmental Effects. Part 3: Methodology: Analytical Approaches and Modelling. Modelling the Growth Effects of Transport Capital Investment - A Macro Level Analysis. Economic Evaluation of Transportation Projects. A Model of Transport Infrastructure Development and Local Economic Growth. Part 4: Empirical Case Studies. Introduction. The Economic Impact of Roads. The Economic Impacts of Rail. The Economic Impacts of Airports. Part 5: Interpretation of Impacts and Policy Conclusions. References. Index.

TRANSPORT INVESTMENT AND THE PROMOTION OF ECONOMIC GROWTH.

Abstract One of the major unresolved research issues in transport is the question as to whether transport infrastructure investment promotes economic growth at the regional and local levels. The concern is not with the transport benefits, principally measured as travel-time savings, but whether there are additional development benefits from these investments. If they do exist, can they be measured? In this paper, we have developed a new approach based on defining the set of necessary conditions for economic development to take place – in addition to the economic conditions, there are the investment conditions and the political and institutional conditions. It is argued that it is only when all three sets of necessary conditions are operating at the same time will measurable and additional economic development benefits be found. A conceptual approach will be presented to encompass these conditions. The paper will also address some of the key questions that have haunted researchers over the last twenty years on this subject area. These fairly detailed findings on the relationship between transport investment and economic development are followed by a series of more generic conclusions relating to other key concerns of analysis. Included here will be a discussion of the dimensions of analysis, a new proposal for project appraisal, decoupling transport from economic growth complexity and causality, accessibility and proximity, and the role of policy design.

Energy and transport

We examine the links between fossil-fuel-based transportation, greenhouse-gas emissions, and health. Transport-related carbon emissions are rising and there is increasing consensus that the growth in motorised land vehicles and aviation is incompatible with averting serious climate change. The energy intensity of land transport correlates with its adverse health effects. Adverse health effects occur through climate change, road-traffic injuries, physical inactivity, urban air pollution, energy-related conflict, and environmental degradation. For the worlds poor people, walking is the main mode of transport, but such populations often experience the most from the harms of energy-intensive transport. New energy sources and improvements in vehicle design and in information technology are necessary but not sufficient to reduce transport-related carbon emissions without accompanying behavioural change. By contrast, active transport has the potential to improve health and equity, and reduce emissions. Cities require safe and pleasant environments for active transport with destinations in easy reach and, for longer journeys, public transport that is powered by renewable energy, thus providing high levels of accessibility without car use. Much investment in major road projects does not meet the transport needs of poor people, especially women whose trips are primarily local and off road. Sustainable development is better promoted through improving walking and cycling infrastructures, increasing access to cycles, and investment in transport services for essential needs. Our model of London shows how increased active transport could help achieve substantial reductions in emissions by 2030 while improving population health. There exists the potential for a global contraction and convergence in use of fossil-fuel energy for transport to benefit health and achieve sustainability.

Quality of life for the elderly: the transport dimension

The concept of quality of life is elusive and this paper reports on a study that has tried to deconstruct the concept in order to better understand what older people say quality of life means to them. The focus here is on the transport dimension where quality of life is broken down into mobility patterns, locality and social networks. The paper first sets the scene with a summary of secondary data and it then systematically presents data from interviews carried out with 1000 older people as part of the British Office for National Statistics Omnibus Surveys in Britain under the three headings mentioned above. A substantial amount of diversity and variation is found in the data by quality of life ratings and the expectations of the respondents. It is argued that both the active (travel related) and passive (locality and social networks) elements need to be brought together so that the quality of life for the elderly can be better understood.

Sustainable cities: Transport, energy, and urban form

This paper extends the debate over the ideal of the sustainable city, particularly as it relates to transport, by providing empirical evidence, from five case-study cities in the United Kingdom and one in the Netherlands on the links between urban form and energy consumption in transport. It also links energy use measures to the physical, economic, and social structure of the city to determine whether there are significant relationships. Energy-use measures combine all the characteristics of travel (mode, distance, and frequency), together with occupancy, to give a new set of composite measures of travel. The conclusions reached are mixed in that significant relationships have been found, principally between energy use in transport and physical characteristics of the city, such as density, size, and amount of open space. But comparability problems make it difficult to establish definitive relationships.

A multidimensional model of the quality of life in older age

The broad aim of the research presented here was to define the constituents and indicators of quality of life (QoL) in older age, in order to offer a more multidimensional and useful model of quality of life, based on the perspectives of older people themselves. This paper focuses on the extent to which self-evaluations of global QoL are influenced by health, psychological and social variables, and social circumstances. It reports the results of a national survey of the quality of life in people aged 65 and over, living at home in Britain. Multiple regression analysis with the self-evaluation of quality of life rating as the dependent variable showed that the overall model (Model 9) of QoL indicators explained 26.7% of the variance in quality of life ratings. This is sizeable given the amorphous nature of this concept. The main independent predictors of self-rated global quality of life were: social comparisons and expectations, personality and psychological characteristics (optimism-pessimism), health and functional status and personal and neighbourhood social capital. These variables explained the highest proportion of the variance between groups in their quality of life ratings. Socio-economic indicators contributed relatively little to the model.

Reducing the Need to Travel

Most people value and enjoy the benefits that the use of their own car brings to their quality of life. These benefits are reflected in the increases in travel, the use of more resources, and the production of more pollution. However, this situation is not sustainable. In this paper the author argues the case for planning playing an instrumental role in achieving sustainability objectives in transport. It reviews the contributions that economics (pricing) and technological measures might have. The conclusion reached is that the scale of price increases required to achieve a reduction in car use will not be politically acceptable. Similarly, technological improvements may only give us a breathing space before more positive action is necessary. Even if the environmental problems created by the car are solved, there will always be the underlying problem of congestion. The only alternative is to travel shorter distances, to develop the potential for linking activities, and to use the car less—this is where planning has a key role. Three main actions are proposed to avoid the need to travel. The first is the implementation of a set of development principles through examining the role that density and settlement size might have on urban sustainability. This issue is particularly important given the current debate at all levels in the United Kingdom over housing allocations and the possibility of a new generation of new settlements. The second action explores the concept of the social audit and the social costs associated with the closure of existing facilities and the opening of new facilities, many of which are inaccessible to those without a car. There have been savings to the provider of the facility through economies of scale, but additional costs have been transferred to the users of these facilities. The social audit would examine all the costs and benefits of these decisions, with a view to subsidy to prevent closure and a tax on greenfield developments to help pay for the redevelopment of brownfield sites within urban areas. The third action is to create quality neighbourhoods in cities to maintain and promote communities with high environmental quality and no congestion. It is only through maintaining and improving environmental quality that urban sustainability can be enhanced, as these locations must form the focus for development. They allow for the provision of clean public transport, they would promote walk and cycling, and they would reduce levels of car dependence.

Excess Commuting: A Critical Review

Abstract Excess commuting is the additional journey‐to‐work travel represented by the difference between the actual average commute and the smallest possible average commute, given the spatial configuration of workplace and residential sites. Research on excess commuting has been carried out over the last 20 years since the seminal contribution of Hamilton (1982). The literature has generated much debate and controversy, and the purpose of this review paper is to assess that material critically under three main headings: contextual, methodological and policy‐related issues. The key contextual questions relate to the assumptions of transport optimization or cost minimization, socio‐economic factors, and how these are linked to urban spatial structure. The methodological issues cover spatial structure, aggregation, time or distance measures, and the boundary problem, whilst the policy‐oriented questions relate to the understanding of the effects of taking particular actions, including the behavioural response to policy initiatives.

Sustainable urban development and transport -a Eurovision for 2020

One of the major challenges for urban planning at the end of the century is the problem that the continuous growth in traffic has had on the achievement of sustainable urban development. This paper presents the major elements of the debate from a European perspective and it sketches out the choices available to decision-makers, together with the very considerable barriers to implementation. The major issues to be addressed, if transport is to conform to the principles of sustainable urban development, are outlined from an international perspective. The actions available are grouped under the three headings of technology, economic and financial, and regulation and planning. The particular problems in Europe relate to the shortage of space, higher densities and the protection of open space. It is argued that high-quality liveable cities must be the basis for sustainable urban development and policies should be implemented to achieve that objective, so the outward migration of residents is reversed. Sustainable living requires people to want to live in close proximity in an attractive, affordable urban environment. Recent research in Europe on the options available at the strategic and the city level will be cited to illustrate the actions that are now being considered to achieve sustainable transport in 2020. To achieve this objective, action is required on both the technology of transport and decoupling of transport from economic growth. In addition, the commitment and involvement of all affected parties is essential, so that imaginative and effective measures can be implemented.