David C. DeAndrea

Attributions for Inconsistencies Between Online and Offline Self-Presentations

This study investigated how people make sense of self-portrayals in social media that are inconsistent with impressions formed through other interpersonal interactions. The research focused on how inconsistent online information affects interpersonal impressions and how motivation to manage impressions influences the types of attributions that actors and observers make for the misleading online behavior. Results show that the relationship between observer and the target influences evaluations of online/offline inconsistencies: Subjects rated the inconsistencies of acquaintances as more intentionally misleading, more hypocritical, and less trustworthy relative to the inconsistencies of friends. In addition, the types of attributions people made for online behavior depended on the perspective of the person providing the explanation: People explained their own online behavior more favorably than the online behavior of both friends and acquaintances.

Interaction of Interpersonal, Peer, and Media Influence Sources Online: A Research Agenda for Technology Convergence

This essay renews consideration of how new communication technologies integrates mass, interpersonal, and other communication dynamics, and proposes research to help understand reciprocal social influence processes and information processing patterns in technologyenhanced exchanges. We review discussions about the division and proposed integrations among mass and interpersonal communication research. We argue that recent technologies fostering the intersection of virtual communities and mass messages through Web 2.0 applications offer particular salience to information from anonymous peers, and that a distinctive aspect of many new technologies is that they simultaneously present multiple types of influence sources—mass, peer, and/or interpersonal—in a manner that redefines or re-orders influence processes. We further develop a framework in which interpersonal motivations which computer-mediated communication make especially potent drive mass media information sampling and information processing. New types of public messaging may also be best investigated by stringent analyses of composers’ interpersonal functional goals. Authors’ notes: Authors are listed alphabetically. Affiliations include Department of Telecommunication, Information Studies & Media, Department of Advertising, Public Relations, & Retailing, and Department of Communication. Convergence of Online Influence Sources, 2 The Interaction of Interpersonal, Peer, and Media Influence Sources Online: A Communication Research Agenda for Technology Convergence Developments in communication technologies are raising new questions and resurrecting old questions about the interplay of interpersonal, mass, and—we wish to argue—peer communication. Questions about the interplay of mass media and interpersonal processes are not altogether new. Twenty years ago a special issue of Human Communication Research featured discussions of the “false dichotomy” between mass and interpersonal communication research. These and other critiques of the fields and foci of mass and interpersonal communication seem to focus on three issues: Some of these essays review the history and nature of the paradigms. Others illustrate how traditional mass communication events and interpersonal processes cycle and sequence with one another and have always done so. Yet others suggested the new communication technologies demand a revised view of mass and interpersonal processes; that new technologies blur the boundaries between interpersonal and mass communication events and/or the roles that communicators take on using new systems. Likewise, arguments have been made that the “convergence” of old and new media demands new and unified perspectives on traditionally segregated processes. Some of the questions and assertions on this subject deserve reconsideration in light of recent technological developments, many of which were unforeseen when previous pronouncements were articulated, that change relationships of mass and interpersonal sources. More specifically, some new communication technologies are changing the manner of reception by which individuals acquire information from institutional, interpersonal, and peer information sources. Technology changes the temporal and contiguous presentations of these sources, and may in fact change the information processing and social influence dynamics among these sources; that is, the sequence with which sources are sampled or the simultaneousness with which they appear may have potent effects on the information processing filters and biases. “Media convergence” is a term that has been used to connote several phenomena that are brought about by advancements in telecommunication technology that may change some aspect of the communication process. Sometimes the term refers to the blending of previously individuated mass media: one can watch movies on one’s computer, for example. We wish to discuss another kind of convergence: the potential for simultaneous communication via computers of both conceptually mass and interpersonal channels. For example, one can examine the NYTimes.com while chatting about its content with a friend via Instant Messenger; one can draw political news from a blogger, and post an individual reaction on that blog as a comment. Moreover, in addition to mass and interpersonal sources, new communication technology has made incredibly salient another information source, virtual communities and other forms of peergenerated information, which is accessible at a previously impossible level. This addition may further affect the balance of sources social influence in several settings. How these information streams influence individuals, of course, is not a magic bullet. We believe that in many cases a deeper understanding of the use and influence of these sources may be derived through a renewed focus on the interpersonal goals that may drive users’ information-seeking and processing. How these new Convergence of Online Influence Sources, 3 juxtapositions of institutional, peer, and interpersonal sources may change information processing patterns and effects of information consumption will have much to do with the interplay of motives that drive particular interactions. Technology has also generated new forms of communication, in social networking sites and other systems, which bridge the structural and functional characteristics of mass/interpersonal/peer communication. Such technologies invite research that will advance understanding of how individuals conceptualize communication, instantiate communication strategies, and interpret new mediated message forms and content. The purposes of the present work are several. First, we revisit approaches to the division and interaction of mass and interpersonal communication processes, to see what questions and assertions have been raised that may continue to guide understanding of these processes as they unfold via new technologies. Second, we will attempt to articulate an expanded perspective on the interplay of institutional, peer, and interpersonal sources through contemporary communication technologies, and to articulate research agendas that can help understanding of the information processing patterns that such convergent forms make likely. Third, we identify new forms and functions of mediated communication that challenge previous classifications, in order to invoke principles that may focus research to help explain these new phenomena. Perspectives on Mass/Interpersonal Divisions and Mergers Traditionally, mass communication processes have been conceptualized as oneway message transmissions from one source to a large, relatively undifferentiated and anonymous audience. Interpersonal communication involves smaller numbers of participants who exchange messages designed for, and directed toward, particular others. Interpersonal communication has been considered a two-way message exchange between two or more individuals in which communication strategies are shaped by the instrumental and relational goals of the individuals involved, and the knowledge about one another’s idiosyncratic preferences (see for review Berger & Chaffee, 1989; Cappella, 1989). Several landmark works involve both mass communication and interpersonal processes to render a comprehensive understanding of particular phenomena. The manner in which most people form and change opinions of politics, style, and other cultural issues is well-known to involve mass media messages and interpersonal discussions(e. g., Katz, 1957; Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955; Lazarsfeld, Berelson, & Gaudet, 1944). Similarly, the integration of mass and interpersonal processes is necessary in order to understand the diffusion of innovations, a communication process that incorporates both mass and interpersonal communication in its very conceptualization (Reardon & Rogers, 1988). Despite their organic relationship in some processes, a review of their conceptual and disciplinary differences shows that the exploration of mass and interpersonal processes often takes place in isolation of one another. This separation helps make clear how they operate together when they do, as well as to set the stage for consideration of their interactions, mergers, and/or convergences. Several commentators have illuminated the causes and consequences of a disciplinary divide between mass and interpersonal communication research. Wiemann, Hawkins, and Pingree (1988) attributed the division to historical and Convergence of Online Influence Sources, 4 academic/bureaucratic differences. Reardon and Rogers (1988) argued that the division developed as a result of scholar’s efforts to define their distinctive contributions to social science. Interpersonal scholars followed the tradition of psychology and social psychology from the 1920s-1930s. Key sources such as Heider’s (1958) Psychology of Interpersonal Relations and the approaches employed by psychologists, sociologists, and anthropologists such as Argyle, Goffman, and Bateson, respectively, helped solidify the relevance of social scientific research on face-to-face interaction and relationships (Reardon & Rogers, 1988), leading to the subarea of interpersonal communication. Mass media research evolved primarily from sociology and political science (Reardon & Rogers, 1988). Mass media research examined how mediated messages affect large audiences. These alternative sub-areas allowed scholars to focus, define, and justify their academic endeavors. Despite its historical utility, this division has been lamented for a variety of reasons. The most prevalent concern is a lack of synthesis between mass and interpersonal communication in terms of the theories and research methods that have developed under alternative foci, to the extent that scholars with functionally similar interests may not be aware of the scientific work being performed outside of their area of specialization (Berger & Chaffee, 1988; Pingree et al., 1988, Reard

Online Language: The Role of Culture in Self-Expression and Self-Construal on Facebook

This article investigated how culture influences self-construal and self-expression on Facebook, a popular social networking site. To examine actual self-description representative of self-construal, unaltered independently existing information was garnered from the Facebook pages of Caucasian Americans, African Americans, and ethnic Asians attending a Midwestern University. Findings indicated that culture plays a significant role in influencing the communication of psychological attributes, individuating information, and the quantity of self-descriptive expression. Furthermore, evidence and argumentation are provided for a greater inclusion of African Americans in self-construal research.

How People Evaluate Online Reviews

The ability viewers have to contribute information to websites (i.e., user-generated content) is a defining feature of the participatory web. Building on warranting theory, this study examined how viewers’ evaluations of a target are more or less likely to be influenced by user-generated content. The results indicate that the more a target is perceived to be able to control the dissemination of user-generated reviews online, the less credence people place in those reviews when forming impressions of the target. In addition, the less people are confident that user-generated reviews are truly produced by third-party reviewers, the less people trust those reviews. The results provide novel support for warranting theory by illustrating how the warranting value of user-generated information can vary and thus differentially affect viewers’ evaluations of a target. The implications of the study’s results for warranting theory, online impression management, e-commerce, and future research are discussed.

Testing the Proclaimed Affordances of Online Support Groups in a Nationally Representative Sample of Adults Seeking Mental Health Assistance

In this study, explanations for why people turn to the Internet for social support are tested using a nationally representative sample of adults who sought mental health support through a traditional treatment outlet, an in-person support group, or an online support group. Results indicate that the more adults report having social stigma concerns, the more likely they are to seek support online instead of help from an in-person support group or traditional treatment. Likewise, as the reported number of logistical barriers to mental health treatment increases, a corresponding increase occurs in the odds of adults seeking online support instead of traditional treatment. These findings as well as estimates of demographic variation in the use of online support are discussed.

Computer-Mediated Communication Versus Vocal Communication and the Attenuation of Pre-Interaction Impressions

Conflicting theoretical approaches yield divergent predictions about the effects of telephones versus computer-mediated communication (CMC) in the persistence or dissipation of pre-interaction expectancies. Moreover, different theoretical orientations and their underlying assumptions often invoke different methodologies, which can bias the results of research. The current studies articulate and assess rival hypotheses from alternative theoretical paradigms to uncover how CMC and vocal communication affect interpersonal impressions. Methodological issues in past CMC research are evaluated that limit the generalizability of previous findings in the area. Experiments employing alternative assumptions and methods indicate that CMC is functionally equivalent to vocal communication in its ability to ameliorate expectancies and that in some cases it can be superior in transmitting positive impressions.

Toward primary prevention of extra-medical OxyContin® use among young people

OBJECTIVE The prevention research context includes current epidemic levels of hazards associated with extra-medical use of OxyContin® (to get high or otherwise outside prescribed boundaries) among teenagers and young adults, and a recent OxyContin® re-formulation with an intent to reduce these hazards, plus hope for possibly beneficial primary prevention impact. The aim is to create a benchmark of risk estimates for the years just prior to OxyContin® re-formulation in anticipation of potential public health benefit in future years, with a focus on teens and the youngest adults in the United States, and to compare two methods for estimating peak risk. METHOD The data are from nationally representative probability sample surveys of 12-21 year olds, yielding estimates for incidence of extra-medical OxyContin® use. Samples are of the non-institutionalized United States population, recruited and assessed in National Surveys on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), each year from 2004 through 2008. In aggregate, the sample includes 135,552 young people who had not used OxyContin® extra-medically prior to their year of survey assessment. RESULTS The main outcome was the estimated population-level age-specific incidence of extra-medical OxyContin® use, 2004-2008. We found that during the 2004-2008 interval the estimated risk accelerated from age 12 years, reached a peak value in mid-adolescence at roughly five newly incident users per 1000 persons per year (95% confidence intervals, 0.3%, 0.7%), and then declined. A meta-analysis approach to year-by-year data differentiated age patterns more clearly than a pooled estimation approach. CONCLUSION Studying young people in the United States, we have discovered that the risk of starting to use OxyContin® extra-medically rises to a peak by mid-adolescence and then declines. From a methods standpoint, the meta-analysis serves well in this context; there is no advantage to pooling survey data across years. We also discovered that during any given year a pediatrician might rarely see even one patient who has just started to use OxyContin® to get high or for other extra-medical purposes. Implications for screening are discussed.

Increasing clarity where it is needed most: articulating and evaluating theoretical contributions

ABSTRACT Improved communication clarity is needed in the presentation and critical evaluation of proposed theory advancements in the field of communication. We encourage communication scholars to be more explicit in detailing the nature of their theoretical pursuits and to utilize with greater frequency established criteria for the assessment of theory. Engaging in these practices will foster more reasoned debate between scholars, produce better informed judgments concerning publication worthiness, allow weaker work to be discarded with less error, and provide an efficient means for the building of stronger, more cogent lines of research.

Measuring the Construct of Warranting Value and Testing Warranting Theory

Warranting theory has been used extensively to explain how people evaluate information across a variety of online settings. However, no validated measurement instrument exists to assess the construct of warranting value that is at the core of the theory. Two studies were conducted to develop and validate a General Warranting Value Scale and three scales that assess specific forms of information control: Modification Control, Dissemination Control, and Source Obfuscation. In addition, we tested predictions of warranting theory using multiple stimuli and samples—including a nationally representative sample of adults. Overall, evidence for scale validity was obtained: Confirmatory factor analyses were consistent with measurement model fit. All scales were sensitive to theoretically predicted manipulations and were correlated with theoretically predicted outcomes.

The Impact of Accusatory, Non-Accusatory, Bait, and False Evidence Questioning on Deception Detection

This research examines question effects in deception detection. A first set of participants (N = 104) were given the opportunity to cheat to obtain a cash prize, and were then interviewed with accusatory, non-accusatory, bait, or false evidence questioning. A second set of participants (N = 157) watched videotapes of the interviews and made honesty judgments. Finally, interviewee behaviors were coded for demeanor. Overall, accuracy was high (72% overall, 70% excluding confessions, and 62% excluding confessions and adjusting for base rate). The type of question set made little difference in truth bias, accuracy, or demeanor, but false evidence questioning yielded 80% confessions compared to 20% confessions with non-accusatory questioning. No false confessions were obtained.