David E. Baruch

Long-term stability of fear memory depends on the synthesis of protein but not mRNA in the amygdala

Synaptic modification supporting memory formation is thought to depend on gene expression and protein synthesis. Disrupting either process around the time of learning prevents the formation of long‐term memory. Recent evidence suggests that memory also becomes susceptible to disruption upon retrieval. Whether or not the molecular events involved in the formation of new memory are the same as what is needed for memory to persist after retrieval has yet to be determined. In the present set of experiments, rats were given inhibitors of protein or messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) synthesis into the amygdala just after training or retrieval of fear memory. Results showed that blocking mRNA or protein synthesis immediately after learning prevented the formation of long‐term memory, while stability of memory after retrieval required protein, but not mRNA, synthesis. These data suggest that the protein needed for memory reconsolidation after retrieval may be transcribed from pre‐existing stores of mRNA.

Effects of exercise on Pavlovian fear conditioning

Exercise promotes multiple changes in hippocampal morphology and should, as a result, alter behavioral function. The present experiment investigated the effect of exercise on learning using contextual and auditory Pavlovian fear conditioning. Rats remained inactive or voluntarily exercised (VX) for 30 days, after which they received auditory-cued fear conditioning. Twenty-four hours later, rats were tested for learning of the contextual and auditory conditional responses. No differences in freezing behavior to the discrete auditory cue were observed during the training or testing sessions. However, VX rats did freeze significantly more compared to controls when tested in the training context 24 hr after exposure to shock. The enhancement of contextual fear conditioning provides further evidence that exercise alters hippocampal function and learning.

A Micro-Process Analysis of Functional Analytic Psychotherapy's Mechanism of Change

This study sought to clarify the micro-process of Functional Analytic Psychotherapy (FAP) by using the Functional Analytic Psychotherapy Rating Scale (FAPRS) to code every client and therapist turn of speech over the course of successful treatment of an individual meeting diagnostic criteria for depression and histrionic personality disorder. Treatment consisted of cognitive behavioral therapy alone followed by the addition of FAP techniques in a unique A / A+B design. In-session client behavior improved following the shift to FAP techniques, and micro-process data suggested that client behavior was effectively shaped by in-vivo FAP procedures. These results support FAPs purported mechanisms of change and highlight the advantages of utilizing molecular coding systems to explore these mechanisms.

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and Behavioral Activation for the Treatment of Depression: Description and Comparison

The field of clinical behavior analysis is growing rapidly and has the potential to affect and transform mainstream cognitive behavior therapy. To have such an impact, the field must provide a formulation of and intervention strategies for clinical depression, the “common cold” of outpatient populations. Two treatments for depression have emerged: acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) and behavioral activation (BA). At times ACT and BA may suggest largely redundant intervention strategies. However, at other times the two treatments differ dramatically and may present opposing conceptualizations. This paper will compare and contrast these two important treatment approaches. Then, the relevant data will be presented and discussed. We will end with some thoughts on how and when ACT or BA should be employed clinically in the treatment of depression.

The Functional Analytic Psychotherapy Rating Scale: a Replication and Extension

Few theories of psychotherapy give direction to the therapist on a moment-to-moment level or make predictions about how specific therapist techniques change client behavior in session. Functional analytic psychotherapy (FAP, Kohlenberg and Tsai in Functional analytic psychotherapy: a guide for creating intense and curative therapeutic relationships. Plenum, New York 1991) provides this direction and prediction. Specifically, FAP claims that client problem behaviors will be displayed in the therapeutic relationship and that the therapist can improve client in-session behavior through differential, contingent responding. Further, it is assumed that these improvements in session can be generalized to out of session relationships. The FAP rating scale (FAPRS) was developed for the purpose of coding in-session client and therapist behaviors in an effort to test FAP’s purported mechanism of change. The current study seeks to replicate and extend initial FAPRS findings (Callaghan et al. in J Contemp Psychother 33:321–339, 2003) regarding mechanism of change and to address transportability. FAPRS coding data from a single successful case of an individual diagnosed with Borderline Personality Disorder and treated with FAP is presented. Results indicate that the FAPRS system is transportable and are generally supportive of the claim that therapist contingent responding leads to client improvement.

Lines of Evidence in Support of FAP

What empirical evidence supports FAP? On the one hand, FAP is based on a handful of basic behavioral principles that were theoretically and empirically derived from decades of laboratory experimentation. On the other, FAP has yet to be tested in a randomized controlled trial. Our belief is that the basic tenets of FAP—namely the importance of the therapeutic relationship and the use of natural reinforcement to shape client problems when they occur naturally in the therapeutic relationship—are robust, and lines of evidence in support of these principles converge from multiple and diverse areas of research. In this chapter we review these lines of evidence. It should be clear from the outset, however, that this review by no means seeks to justify the paucity of direct empirical evidence in support of FAP. Rather, we believe that the findings of this review strongly suggest that additional empirical research specifically investigating the efficacy of FAP is warranted, as it was developed from a solid foundation of principles and evidence and represents a convergence of some of the most robust findings in psychological research. While FAP is a therapy based on behavior analytic principles, at its heart it is an interpersonal therapy. FAP is based on the assumption that both the causes of, and treatment for, psychopathology are intimately related to interpersonal relationships. This assumption has substantial support in the literature with respect to depressive disorders. It is well established that interpersonal problems, troubled relationships, and lack of social support predict the onset (Stice, Ragan, & Randall, 2004), course (Lara, Leader, & Klein, 1997; Miller et al., 1992), duration (Brown & Moran, 1994) and relapse of depression (Hooley & Teasdale, 1989). Conversely, the presence of social support has protective effects (Peirce, Frone, Russell, Cooper, M Sherboume, Hays, & Wells, 1995). While several alternative therapies focus on the therapeutic relationship and associated processes, FAP utilizes basic learning principles to harness the therapist-client relationship, focusing on the establishment of a more effective

Enhancing the Therapy Relationship in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for Psychotic Symptoms

The article demonstrates how acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) may effectively alter the function of positive psychotic symptoms and how functional analytic psychotherapy (FAP) may provide a complimentary framework for interpersonal change. ACT differs with many psychosis approaches in that it does not attempt to reduce psychotic symptoms; instead, it aims to increase psychological flexibility (e.g., acceptance) in the presence of psychotic symptoms while actively pursuing valued living. The study involves, John, a 21-year-old college student, who presented with depressive symptoms, delusional and brief visual hallucinatory episodes, and severe social isolation. ACT interventions emphasize acceptance of, and mindful reactions to, psychotic symptoms while pursuing valued life goals. As Johns main goal of treatment was to develop more intimate interpersonal relationships, FAP techniques were introduced as behaviors that seemed to be distancing him from peers manifested themselves in session. The benefits and challenges of integrating ACT and FAP are discussed.

The Differential Effect of Instructions on Dysphoric and Nondysphoric Persons

The experimenters investigated whether dysphoric and nondysphoric persons differentially exhibited the traditional instructioninduced schedule-insensitivity effect (rule-governed behavior). Dysphoric and nondysphoric participants were given instructions to perform a matching-to-sample task (four blocks, 40 trials each). The instructions in the first half of the study were correct and in the second half, incorrect. Participants were assigned to one of two instructional control conditions in which they read the instruction either privately (tracking condition) or out loud to the experimenter (pliance condition). Dysphoric individuals demonstrated greater schedule sensitivity (less rule-governed behavior) than did nondysphoric persons. No other differences were found. Results indicate that deficits in rule-governed behavior may contribute to depression; however, this experiment did not incorporate procedures to directly test the role of rule-governed experiential avoidance.

Depression stigma and treatment preferences among Orthodox and non-Orthodox Jews.

Abstract Anecdotal reports of increased stigma toward mental illness among Orthodox Jews seems to conflict with an existing literature describing less stigmatization toward depression among Jewish individuals. This online survey study investigated stigma toward depression and treatment preference among Orthodox and non-Orthodox Jews (N = 391). All participants were presented with a depression vignette to assess for stigma and then randomized to a vignette depicting a treatment modality (behaviorally oriented or insight oriented) to assess for treatment preference across several delivery options (individual, group, or Internet). Results indicated elevated depression stigma among Orthodox Jews as expressed by elevated levels of secrecy, treatment-seeking stigma, family/marriage stigma, and stigmatizing experiences, but not attitudinal social distancing. No group differences were found with respect to overall treatment preference, treatment modality, or manner of delivery. Overall, participants preferred individual therapy more than group and Internet therapy and preferred group therapy more than Internet therapy. Clinical and research implications are discussed.