David F. Stodden

Correlation between BMI and motor coordination in children.

OBJECTIVESnTo analyze the association between motor coordination (MC) and body mass index (BMI) across childhood and early adolescence.nnnDESIGNnThis study is cross-sectional.nnnMETHODSnData were collected in 7175 children (boys n=3616, girls n=3559), ages 6-14 years. BMI was calculated from measured height and weight [body mass (kg)/height (m(2))]. Motor coordination was evaluated using Kiphard-Schillings body coordination test (KTK). Spearmans rank correlation was used to study the association between BMI and MC. A Kruskal-Wallis test was used to analyze the differences in MC between children of normal weight, overweight and obese children.nnnRESULTSnCorrelations between MC and BMI were negative and varied between 0.05 and 0.49. The highest negative correlations for both boys and girls was at 11 years of age. There was a general pattern of increasing negative correlations in both genders from 6 to 11 years of age and then a decrease in correlation strengths through 14 years of age. In both boys (χ(2)((2))=324.01; p<0.001) and girls (χ(2)((2))=291.20; p<0.001) there were significant differences in MC between the three groups weight status. Normal weight children of both sexes demonstrated significantly higher MC scores than overweight. Obese children in both sexes had the lowest MC scores among all three groups.nnnCONCLUSIONnMotor coordination demonstrated an inverse relationship with BMI across childhood and into early adolescence. The strength of the inverse relation increased during childhood, but decreased through early adolescence. Overweight and obese children of both sexes demonstrated significantly lower MC than normal weight children.

The Association Between Motor Skill Competence and Physical Fitness in Young Adults

We examined the relationship between competence in three fundamental motor skills (throwing, kicking, and jumping) and six measures of health-related physical fitness in young adults (ages 18–25). We assessed motor skill competence using product scores of maximum kicking and throwing speed and maximum jumping distance. A factor analysis indicated the 12-min run/walk, percent body fat, curl-ups, grip strength, and maximum leg press strength all loaded on one factor defining the construct of “overall fitness.” Multiple regression analyses indicated that the product scores for jumping (74%), kicking (58%), and throwing (59%) predicted 79% of the variance in overall fitness. Gender was not a significant predictor of fitness. Results suggest that developing motor skill competence may be fundamental in developing and maintaining adequate physical fitness into adulthood. These data represent the strongest to date on the relationship between motor skill competence and physical fitness.

Do School-Based Interventions Focusing on Physical Activity, Fitness, or Fundamental Movement Skill Competency Produce a Sustained Impact in These Outcomes in Children and Adolescents? A Systematic Review of Follow-Up Studies

BackgroundThere is emerging evidence for positive associations between physical activity (PA), fitness, and fundamental movement skill (FMS) competence, for both children and adolescents. Current reviews of interventions to improve these variables note few studies conduct follow-up assessments to assess behavior maintenance.ObjectiveThe aim of this systematic review was to determine whether typically developing children and adolescents (aged 3–18xa0years) who have participated in school-based interventions have sustained outcomes in PA, fitness, and/or FMS.MethodsA systematic search of six electronic databases (CINAHL® Plus with Full Text, Ovid MEDLINE®, SPORTDiscus™, Scopus, PsycINFO® and ERIC) was conducted from 1995 to 26 July 2012. Included studies were school-based studies (including randomized controlled trials, longitudinal cohort, quasi-experimental, and experimental) that had a positive effect at post intervention in at least one variable and had a follow-up PA, fitness, or FMS assessment at least 6xa0months after the post-intervention assessment. Risk of bias assessment was guided by the “Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses” statement.ResultsThe search identified 14 articles, and some studies addressed multiple outcomes: 13 articles assessed PA; three assessed fitness; and two assessed FMS. No study in this review met four key methodological criteria that have been shown to influence results, i.e., clarity on the randomization process, assessor blinding, analyzing participants in their original groups, and retaining sufficient participants through the entire study. Three-quarters (ten of 13) of the studies addressing PA, reported PA behavior change maintenance. The length of follow-up ranged from 6xa0months to 20xa0years, and the degree of PA difference reported was between 3 and 14xa0min per day. Only one of the three studies assessing fitness reported a sustained impact, whilst both studies that assessed FMS reported maintenance of effects.ConclusionIt is likely that PA is a sustainable outcome from interventions in children and adolescents, and there is reasonable evidence that interventions of longer than 1xa0year and interventions that utilize a theoretical model or framework are effective in producing this sustained impact. It would seem probable that FMS are a sustainable outcome in children and adolescents; however, this finding should be viewed with caution given the lack of studies and the risk of bias assessment. More research is needed to assess the sustainability of fitness interventions as this review only included a handful of studies that addressed fitness and only one of these studies found a sustained impact.

Video Game–Based Exercise, Latino Children's Physical Health, and Academic Achievement

BACKGROUNDnThere is a paucity of research investigating the effects of innovative physical activity programs on physical health and academic performance in the Latino population.nnnPURPOSEnTo examine the impact of Dance Dance Revolution [DDR]-based exercise on Latino childrens physical fitness and academic achievement.nnnDESIGNnA repeated-measures crossover design was used. In Year 1, Grade-4 students were assigned to the intervention group and offered 30 minutes of exercise (DDR, aerobic dance) three times per week. Grade-3 and Grade-5 students made up the comparison group and were offered no structured exercise at school. In Year 2, the Grade-4 students were again assigned to the intervention, whereas Grade-5 and Grade-6 students were in the comparison group.nnnSETTING/PARTICIPANTSnAssessments were conducted with 208 Latino school children.nnnMAIN OUTCOME MEASURESnThe baseline measures included time to complete a 1-mile run, BMI, and reading and math scores. Data were collected again 9 months later. Overall, data were collected in 2009-2011 and analyzed in 2012.nnnRESULTSnData yielded significant differences between the intervention and comparison groups in differences in 1-mile run and math scores in Year 1 and Year 2. The results also revealed net differences in the intervention versus comparison group scores on the 1-mile run for Grade 3 (p<0.01). Additionally, childrens yearly pre-test and post-test BMI group changes differed (χ(2)((2)) = 6.6, p<0.05) only for the first year of intervention.nnnCONCLUSIONSnThe DDR-based exercise intervention improved childrens cardiorespiratory endurance and math scores over time. Professionals should consider integrating exergaming at schools to achieve the goals of promoting a physically active lifestyle and enhancing academic success among Latino children.

Kinematic Constraints Associated with the Acquisition of Overarm Throwing Part II: Upper Extremity Actions.

The purposes of this study were to: (a) examine the differences within 11 specific kinematic variables and an outcome measure (ball velocity) associated with component developmental levels of humerus and forearm action (Roberton & Halverson, 1984), and (b) if the differences in kinematic variables were significantly associated with the differences in component levels, determine potential kinematic constraints associated with skilled throwing acquisition. Significant differences among component levels in five of six humerus kinematic variables (p < .01) and all five forearm kinematic variables (p < .01) were identified using multivariate analysis of variance. These kinematic variables represent potential control parameters and, therefore, constraints on overarm throwing acquisition.

Dynamic relationships between motor skill competence and health-related fitness in youth.

This cross-sectional study examined associations among motor skill competence (MSC) and health-related fitness (HRF) in youth. A convenient sample of 253 boys and 203 girls (aged 4-13 years) participated in the study. Associations among measures of MSC (throwing and kicking speed and standing long jump distance) and a composite measure of HRF (push-ups, curl-ups, grip strength and PACER test) across five age groups (4-5, 6-7, 8-9, 10-11 and 12-13 yrs.) were assessed using hierarchical regression modeling. When including all children, throwing and jumping were significantly associated with the composite HRF factor for both boys and girls (throw, t = 5.33; jump, t = 4.49) beyond the significant age effect (t = 4.98) with kicking approaching significance (t = 1.73, p = .08). Associations between throwing and kicking speed and HRF appeared to increase from early to middle to late childhood age ranges. Associations between jumping and HRF were variable across age groups. These results support the notion that the relationship between MSC and HRF performance are dynamic and may change across childhood. These data suggest that the development of object control skills in childhood may be important for the development and maintenance of HRF across childhood and into adolescence.

Associations Among Selected Motor Skills and Health-Related Fitness: Indirect Evidence for Seefeldt's Proficiency Barrier in Young Adults?

Purpose: This exploratory study examined the notion of Seefeldts (1980) hypothesized motor skill “proficiency barrier” related to composite levels of health-related physical fitness (HRF) in young adults. Method: A motor skill competence (MSC) index composed of maximum throwing and kicking speed and jumping distance in 187 young adults aged 18 to 25 years old was evaluated against a composite index of 5 health-related fitness (HRF) test scores. MSC (high, moderate, and low) and HRF indexes (good, fair, and poor) were categorized according to normative fitness percentile ranges. 2 separate 3-way chi-square analyses were conducted to determine the probabilities of skill predicting fitness and fitness predicting skill. Results: Most correlations among HRF and MSC variables by gender demonstrated low-to-moderate positive correlations in both men (12/15; r = .23–.58) and women (14/15; r = .21–.53). Chi-square analyses for the total sample, using composite indexes, demonstrated statistically significant predictive models, χ 2 (1, N = 187) = 66.99, p < .001, Cramers V = .42. Only 3.1% of low-skilled (2 of 65) individuals were classified as having a “good” HRF. Only 1 participant (out of 65) who demonstrated high MSC was classified as having “poor” HRF (1.5%). Conclusion: Although individual correlations among individual MSC and HRF measures were low to moderate, these data provide indirect evidence for the possibility of a motor skill “proficiency barrier” as indicated by low composite HRF levels. This study may generate future research to address the proficiency barrier hypothesis in youth as well as adults.

Impulse-Variability Theory: Implications for Ballistic, Multijoint Motor Skill Performance

ABSTRACT Impulse-variability theory (R. A. Schmidt, H. N. Zelaznik, B. Hawkins, J. S. Frank, & J. T. Quinn, 1979) accounts for the curvilinear relationship between the magnitude and resulting variability of the muscular forces that influence the success of goal-directed limb movements. The historical roots of impulse-variability theory are reviewed in the 1st part of this article, including the relationship between movement speed and spatial error. The authors then address the relevance of impulse-variability theory for the control of ballistic, multijoint skills, such as throwing, striking, and kicking. These types of skills provide a stark contrast to the relatively simple, minimal degrees of freedom movements that characterized early research. However, the inherent demand for ballistic force generation is a strong parallel between these simple laboratory tasks and multijoint motor skills. Therefore, the authors conclude by recommending experimental procedures for evaluating the adequacy of impulse variability as a theoretical model within the context of ballistic, multijoint motor skill performance.

Age and gender differences in adolescent and adult overarm throwing.

Purpose: The purposes of this study were to examine age and gender differences in throwing performance across an underexplored portion of the lifespan: middle adolescents (14–17 years old), young adults (18–25 years old), and adults (35–55 years old). Method: Throwing performance was assessed using the body component levels from Robertons developmental sequences for force and ball velocity that were recorded by a radar gun. Participants in each age group performed between 5 to 10 forceful overhand throws toward a target approximately 15 m to 20 m from the thrower. A Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney Test was used to determine gender differences and a Wilcoxon-Signed Ranks Test was used to determine age-group differences for each component. Gender and age-group differences in ball speed were determined by a 3 (age group) × 2 (gender) factorial analysis of variance with follow-up post-hoc tests. Results: Young-adult men had higher body component levels and ball speed compared with the adolescent boys and adult men. Female age-group differences existed only for humerus action between young-adult and adult groups and for ball speed between young-adult and adolescent groups. Gender differences (p < .01) existed in component levels for the adolescent and young-adult groups, but not the adult groups. Gender differences in ball speed (p < .001) existed within each age group. Conclusion: Although these data were cross-sectional, the regressive developmental changes observed and the narrowing gender gap may eventually provide insight related to the relationships among motor skill competence, physical fitness, and physical activity across the lifespan.