Stephen J. Langendorfer

A Developmental Perspective on the Role of Motor Skill Competence in Physical Activity: An Emergent Relationship

Although significant attention has been paid to promoting the importance of physical activity in children, adolescents, and adults, we do not currently understand how to promote sustained physical activity levels throughout the lifespan. We contend that previous research has failed to consider the dynamic and synergistic role that motor skill competence plays in the initiation, maintenance, or decline of physical activity and how this role might change across developmental time. In this article, we present a conceptual model hypothesizing the relationships among physical activity, motor skill competence, perceived motor skill competence, health-related physical fitness, and obesity. We contend that the development of motor skill competence is a primary underlying mechanism that promotes engagement in physical activity.

The Association Between Motor Skill Competence and Physical Fitness in Young Adults

We examined the relationship between competence in three fundamental motor skills (throwing, kicking, and jumping) and six measures of health-related physical fitness in young adults (ages 18–25). We assessed motor skill competence using product scores of maximum kicking and throwing speed and maximum jumping distance. A factor analysis indicated the 12-min run/walk, percent body fat, curl-ups, grip strength, and maximum leg press strength all loaded on one factor defining the construct of “overall fitness.” Multiple regression analyses indicated that the product scores for jumping (74%), kicking (58%), and throwing (59%) predicted 79% of the variance in overall fitness. Gender was not a significant predictor of fitness. Results suggest that developing motor skill competence may be fundamental in developing and maintaining adequate physical fitness into adulthood. These data represent the strongest to date on the relationship between motor skill competence and physical fitness.

Kinematic constraints associated with the acquisition of overarm throwing. Part I: Step and trunk actions

The purposes of this study were to: (a) examine differences within specific kinematic variables and ball velocity associated with developmental component levels of step and trunk action (Roberton & Halverson, 1984), and (b) if the differences in kinematic variables were significantly associated with the differences in component levels, determine potential kinematic constraints associated with skilled throwing acquisition. Results indicated stride length (69.3%) and time from stride foot contact to ball release (39.7%) provided substantial contributions to ball velocity (p < .001). All trunk kinematic measures increased significantly with increasing component levels (p < .001). Results suggest that trunk linear and rotational velocities, degree of trunk tilt, time from stride foot contact to ball release, and ball velocity represented potential control parameters and, therefore, constraints on overarm throwing acquisition.

Kinematic Constraints Associated with the Acquisition of Overarm Throwing Part II: Upper Extremity Actions.

The purposes of this study were to: (a) examine the differences within 11 specific kinematic variables and an outcome measure (ball velocity) associated with component developmental levels of humerus and forearm action (Roberton & Halverson, 1984), and (b) if the differences in kinematic variables were significantly associated with the differences in component levels, determine potential kinematic constraints associated with skilled throwing acquisition. Significant differences among component levels in five of six humerus kinematic variables (p < .01) and all five forearm kinematic variables (p < .01) were identified using multivariate analysis of variance. These kinematic variables represent potential control parameters and, therefore, constraints on overarm throwing acquisition.

Dynamic relationships between motor skill competence and health-related fitness in youth.

This cross-sectional study examined associations among motor skill competence (MSC) and health-related fitness (HRF) in youth. A convenient sample of 253 boys and 203 girls (aged 4-13 years) participated in the study. Associations among measures of MSC (throwing and kicking speed and standing long jump distance) and a composite measure of HRF (push-ups, curl-ups, grip strength and PACER test) across five age groups (4-5, 6-7, 8-9, 10-11 and 12-13 yrs.) were assessed using hierarchical regression modeling. When including all children, throwing and jumping were significantly associated with the composite HRF factor for both boys and girls (throw, t = 5.33; jump, t = 4.49) beyond the significant age effect (t = 4.98) with kicking approaching significance (t = 1.73, p = .08). Associations between throwing and kicking speed and HRF appeared to increase from early to middle to late childhood age ranges. Associations between jumping and HRF were variable across age groups. These results support the notion that the relationship between MSC and HRF performance are dynamic and may change across childhood. These data suggest that the development of object control skills in childhood may be important for the development and maintenance of HRF across childhood and into adolescence.

Individual Pathways in the Development of Forceful Throwing

Abstract Halverson, Roberton, and Langendorfer (1982) reported the development of children ages 6–13 years filmed longitudinally performing the forceful overarm throw. These authors described the childrens progress through developmental sequences for trunk, humerus, and forearm actions; however, they did not study developmental relationships (“profiles”) across these components. This paper reports how the profiles changed in the same children across trials within filming sessions and over time. The data revealed both common and individual developmental pathways. The frequencies of some pathways were not chance occurrences (p ≤ .01), suggesting that within-person constraints eliminated certain movement relationships while encouraging others. The authors hypothesize that the kinematics of trunk rotation may serve as a control parameter for pattern change.

Associations Among Selected Motor Skills and Health-Related Fitness: Indirect Evidence for Seefeldt's Proficiency Barrier in Young Adults?

Purpose: This exploratory study examined the notion of Seefeldts (1980) hypothesized motor skill “proficiency barrier” related to composite levels of health-related physical fitness (HRF) in young adults. Method: A motor skill competence (MSC) index composed of maximum throwing and kicking speed and jumping distance in 187 young adults aged 18 to 25 years old was evaluated against a composite index of 5 health-related fitness (HRF) test scores. MSC (high, moderate, and low) and HRF indexes (good, fair, and poor) were categorized according to normative fitness percentile ranges. 2 separate 3-way chi-square analyses were conducted to determine the probabilities of skill predicting fitness and fitness predicting skill. Results: Most correlations among HRF and MSC variables by gender demonstrated low-to-moderate positive correlations in both men (12/15; r = .23–.58) and women (14/15; r = .21–.53). Chi-square analyses for the total sample, using composite indexes, demonstrated statistically significant predictive models, χ 2 (1, N = 187) = 66.99, p < .001, Cramers V = .42. Only 3.1% of low-skilled (2 of 65) individuals were classified as having a “good” HRF. Only 1 participant (out of 65) who demonstrated high MSC was classified as having “poor” HRF (1.5%). Conclusion: Although individual correlations among individual MSC and HRF measures were low to moderate, these data provide indirect evidence for the possibility of a motor skill “proficiency barrier” as indicated by low composite HRF levels. This study may generate future research to address the proficiency barrier hypothesis in youth as well as adults.

Does the throwing gender gap occur in Germany

Boys and girls in the U.S. consistently demonstrate large developmental differences in the overarm throw for force. Thomas and French (1985) applied a meta-analysis to 16 throwing studies and found that these gender differences started as early as 3 years of age. The differences grew to 2–3 standard deviations by the teen years. Regardless of whether the dependent variable was the distance thrown, ball velocity, or the developmental level of the movements used, boys were developmentally more advanced than girls. Recently, Pulito Runion, Roberton, and Langendorfer (2003) replicated these findings in 13-year-olds. The gender difference in ball velocity was 1.8 standard deviations. Reasons for this “gender gap” are unclear. Williams, Haywood, and Painter (1996) found no gender differences in ball velocities when they asked 7–12-year-olds to throw with their nondominant arm. They conjectured that boys practiced throwing more than girls, which made them superior on their dominant side. Nelson, Thomas, and Nelson (1991) found little longitudinal change over 3 years in girls’ throwing patterns. They also speculated that this lack of change reflected less practice. On the other hand, Thomas and French (1985) and Nelson, Thomas, Nelson, and Abraham (1986) concluded that biology must be at least partially responsible for the gender gap. The latter reported that three anthropometric measures (joint diameters, shoulder/hip ratio, sum of skinfolds) and only one environmental measure (playing with other children) accounted for 41% of the variance in the distance 5-year-olds could throw. These studies occurred in the U.S., a country that encourages male skillfulness in throwing through its cultural emphasis on sports like baseball, football, and softball. Newell’s (1986) constraints theory (that levels of motor development emerge from the intersection of environment, person, and task) suggested that changing the cultural environment might affect the throwing movements children display. Different cultures form different constraints on gender. Indeed, the term “gender” represents biological sex overlaid with cultural expectations about appropriate behavior for that sex. Adopting the Newell model in the present study, we asked whether the gender gap would occur in a culture in which throwing was not particularly encouraged. In such a culture, we speculated that boys would practice the throw less than boys in the U.S. and, therefore, not be as developmentally ahead of girls. To examine our cultural hypothesis, we replicated the Pulito Runion et al. (2003) throwing study in Germany, where the most popular sport is Fußball (soccer; Flippo, 1996). Over 1.5 million 7–14-year-olds participate in this sport (Hedderich, 2005). The only throwing sport some German children play is team handball, but, in contrast to Fußball, only 200,000 7–14-year-olds participate (Hedderich, 2005). For these reasons, we hypothesized that German teens would report less throwing practice than U.S. teens, but, like U.S. teens, they would consider ball throwing appropriate for both genders. Second, we hypothesized that the gender gap in ball velocities would be smaller in Germany than in the U.S., causing a significant gender by country interaction. We also hypothesized that the German teens would show gender differences in fewer movement components of the throw than U.S. teens. Does the Throwing “Gender Gap” Occur in Germany?

Age and gender differences in adolescent and adult overarm throwing.

Purpose: The purposes of this study were to examine age and gender differences in throwing performance across an underexplored portion of the lifespan: middle adolescents (14–17 years old), young adults (18–25 years old), and adults (35–55 years old). Method: Throwing performance was assessed using the body component levels from Robertons developmental sequences for force and ball velocity that were recorded by a radar gun. Participants in each age group performed between 5 to 10 forceful overhand throws toward a target approximately 15 m to 20 m from the thrower. A Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney Test was used to determine gender differences and a Wilcoxon-Signed Ranks Test was used to determine age-group differences for each component. Gender and age-group differences in ball speed were determined by a 3 (age group) × 2 (gender) factorial analysis of variance with follow-up post-hoc tests. Results: Young-adult men had higher body component levels and ball speed compared with the adolescent boys and adult men. Female age-group differences existed only for humerus action between young-adult and adult groups and for ball speed between young-adult and adolescent groups. Gender differences (p < .01) existed in component levels for the adolescent and young-adult groups, but not the adult groups. Gender differences in ball speed (p < .001) existed within each age group. Conclusion: Although these data were cross-sectional, the regressive developmental changes observed and the narrowing gender gap may eventually provide insight related to the relationships among motor skill competence, physical fitness, and physical activity across the lifespan.

A Prelongitudinal Test of Motor Stage Theory

Abstract A test of motor stage theory was conducted to screen cross-sectionally for the existence of “horizontal structure” among motor sequences within four movement components of overarm throwing and overarm striking for force. A total of 58 male subjects were filmed performing five trials of each task. Comparisons were made between movement component sequence levels as assessed by Robertons Component Category Checklist for the Overarm Throw and Langendorfers Component Category Checklist for Overarm Striking. Results indicated that longitudinal study of sequences within the components of trunk, humerus, forearm-racquet actions was warranted and that intertask comparisons of motor sequences were best represented by combinations of stage models proposed by Wohlwill (1973). The observed movement commonalities in the present data were consistent with constructs in both Piagetian developmental stage theory and Schmidts schema theory in motor control and learning.