David M. Tokar

Assessing Perceptions of Career-Related Barriers: The Career Barriers Inventory

The number and type of barriers that one perceives can be a limiting factor in career choice and implementation, and the construct of perceived career barriers has been increasingly recognized as an important and useful explanatory variable in research regarding career choice. This article addresses the assessment of career barriers and includes two foci. First, we describe the development and subsequent revisions of the Career Barriers Inventory (CBI; Swanson & Daniels, 1995c; Swanson & Tokar, 1991b) and summarize empirical evidence from studies using the CBI. Second, we discuss how the construct of perceived barriers relates to the recently articulated social cognitive model of career development (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994) and offer some suggestions for research and practice regarding assessment of career barriers.

Assessing Women's Feminist Identity Development: Studies of Convergent, Discriminant, and Structural Validity

Researchers have called for increasing sophistication in the assessment of womens feminist identity development (Enns & Hackett, 1990; Hackett, Enns, & Zetzer, 1992) to understand important psychological processes. This series of studies examined recent efforts to operationalize Downing and Roushs (1985) model of feminist identity development. Specifically, the psychometric properties of two existing measures—the Feminist Identity Development Scale (Bargad & Hyde, 1991) and the Feminist Identity Scale (Rickard, 1987)—were examined in two studies with separate samples of women (total N = 486). Results of Study 1 indicated the strengths and significant limitations associated with each scale (e.g., low internal consistency for some subscales, item-subscale inconsistency). A composite measure (derived from these scales) with better overall psychometric properties is described. In Study 2, we found good support for the composite instruments internal consistency, as well as convergent, discriminant, and factorial validity in a sample that included a wide age range and nonstudent community residents.

Testing a Culture-Specific Extension of Objectification Theory Regarding African American Women’s Body Image

Objectification theory has emphasized objectification in terms of body shape and size. African American women may expect to be evaluated on additional physical attributes such as skin tone. Therefore, we extended previous research on objectification theory by adding separate measures of skin-tone concerns in a survey of 117 African American women. Results from a series of path analyses revealed that as hypothesized, habitual body monitoring of skin tone predicted specific skin-tone dissatisfaction as well as general shame regarding body shape and size. Contrary to theoretical predictions, self-objectification did not mediate links between habitual monitoring (of skin tone or of body size and shape) and body dissatisfaction. In terms of objectification theory, results suggest that skin tone is a relevant dimension of habitual body monitoring and dissatisfaction for some African American women.

Masculinity, vocational interests, and career choice traditionality: Evidence for a fully mediated model.

The authors used structural equation modeling to test a theoretically based, fully mediated model in which masculine gender roles influence vocational interests that, in turn, influence the traditionality of career choice for men. The authors also tested a competing partially mediated model that included an additional direct effect of masculine gender roles on career choice traditionality. Participants were 212 male undergraduate and graduate students representing 51 different majors. Results indicated that the direct relation between masculine gender roles and career choice traditionality was nonsignificant; however, vocational interests mediated the relation between these variables, thus providing support for the fully mediated model.

Dimensions Relating Holland's Vocational Personality Typology and the Five-Factor Model.

This study examined the correspondence between two models of personality structure, both of which purport to be comprehensive: Hollands (1992) vocational personality typology and the five-factor model. In this research, 102 female and 91 male college students completed the Self-Directed Search (SDS; Holland, 1985a) and the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI; Costa & McCrae, 1985). Results of canonical analyses revealed two dimensions to which SDS and NEO-PI variable sets were related for both females and males; however, the nature of the dimension pairs differed by gender. For females, significant overlap between SDS and NEO-PI domains was represented by a dimension characterized by a Nonpersonal Orientation at one pole and an Interpersonal Orientation at the other pole, and a Closedness-Openness dimension. For males, overlap between the two domains was explained by Closedness-Openness and Introversion-Extraversion dimensions. Results generally were consistent with theoretical definitions of the Big-Five personality dimensions, as well as the trait characterizations of the six Holland types. Results also revealed associations of Predigers (1982) Data/Ideas and Things/People with the Closedness-Openness and Nonpersonal-Interpersonal dimensions, respectively.

MORE ON THE STRUCTURE OF MALE ROLE NORMS

This study assessed the structure of a widely used measure of masculinity ideology, the Male Role Norms Scale (Thompson & Pleck, 1986), using data from four samples of male college students (total N= 656) at two large, public universities (one Midwestern, one Eastern-Central). Exploratory factor analysis suggested a four-factor model best fit the data in the exploratory sample (sample 1; N = 210). The four factors were Status/Rationality, Antifemininity, Tough Image, and Violent Toughness. A series of confirmatory factor analyses on a validation sample (samples 2, 3, and 4; N = 446), tested four models based on theory (i.e., Brannon, 1976) and previous research (i.e., Thompson & Pleck, 1986). Results from Study 1, our exploratory analysis, indicated that the four-factor model derived from the exploratory sample in Study 1 provided the best fit for the validation sample data of all models tested and also provided a good fit in absolute terms, according to several model–data fit indices. Implications for the assessment of masculinity ideology and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Validity and construct contamination of the Racial Identity Attitude Scale—Long Form.

The Racial Identity Attitude Scale-Long Form (RIAS-L; J.E. Helms & T.A. Parham, 1996) is likely to be the instrument of choice in future research on African American racial identity development, but little is known about its psychometric properties. RIAS-L data from 275 African American community members and students were collected, and a series of analyses (i.e., correlations, multiple regressions, and confirmatory modeling) was conducted to explore convergent and discriminant validity. Overall, results were mixed, generally revealing limited support for the RIAS-Ls convergent and discriminant validity and highlighting concerns regarding the Preencounter and Encounter subscales.

An Examination of the Applicability of Social Cognitive Career Theory for African American College Students

The purpose of the present study is to extend the literature on social cognitive career theory (SCCT) by examining (a) the applicability of SCCT for African Americans with constructs defined in terms of Holland’s realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional (RIASEC) themes and (b) the role of specific learning experiences (performance accomplishments, vicarious learning, and verbal persuasion) in the formation of corresponding self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Structural equation modeling (SEM) results based on a sample of 208 African American college students revealed support for hypothesized relations of self-efficacy with outcome expectations, self-efficacy and outcome expectations with interests and choice goals, and interests with choice goals for all six RIASEC themes. Results revealed partial support for the hypothesized relations of learning experiences with self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Finally, results indicated limited support for the hypothesis that verbal persuasion would be a stronger positive predictor of self-efficacy and outcome expectations than would performance accomplishments and vicarious learning. These findings offer preliminary support for the applicability of SCCT in explaining African American college students’ RIASEC-based interest development and career choice goals. Implications of the findings for career counseling interventions and future research are discussed.

Lateralization differences for color-naming and color-matching in men and women.

The relationship between accuracy of color-naming and color-matching in both visual fields (LVF and RVF) as a function of sex was investigated. Subjects were 19 men and 15 women who ranged in age from 18 to 32 yr. Each subject was tested on both a color-naming task and a color-matching task presented tachistoscopically. Accuracy measures for each task were obtained separately for both left and right visual fields. A two-factor analysis of variance with repeated measures on one factor followed by a t test for simple main effects showed significant right visual-field advantage for the color-naming task, a significant sex main effect for the color-matching task (in the left visual field only), and a significant interaction of sex by visual field for the matching task. Men performed in a more strongly lateralized fashion on the color-matching task than did women, supporting the notion of greater lateralization among males.

The moderating effect of private self-consciousness on the stability of vocational interests

Abstract This study investigated the potential moderating effect of private self-consciousness on the stability of vocational interest inventory scores and profiles. We hypothesized that participants higher in private self-consciousness would have more stable interest scores and profiles on the Self-Directed Search (SDS; Holland, Fritzsche, & Powell, 1994 ) across a 12-week time interval than would participants lower in private self-consciousness. Results revealed that private self-consciousness did moderate the stability of SDS Enterprising interest scores. Contrary to our hypothesis, private self-consciousness did not moderate the stability of the other five SDS interest scores or SDS interest profile stability.