David Marchant

Criteria for Determination of Maximal Oxygen Uptake: A Brief Critique and Recommendations for Future Research

Although the concept of maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) was conceived as early as 1923, the criteria used to establish whether a true V̇O2max has been attained have been heavily criticised. Consequently, an improvement in the methodology of the existing criteria, or development of new criteria, is required. In order to be valid across experimental studies, new or improved criteria need to be independent of exercise modality, test protocol and subject characteristics. One procedure that has shown potential for yielding valid V̇O2max criteria is the verification phase, which consists of a supramaximal constant speed run to exhaustion performed after the incremental phase of a V̇O2max test. A peak oxygen uptake (V̇O2peak) in the verification phase that is similar (within the tolerance of measurement error, e.g. within 2%) to the V̇O2max value attained in the incremental phase would indicate that a true V̇O2max has been elicited. Verification of the maximal heart rate would also indicate that a subject has given a maximum effort. Although the validity of the present methodology for identifying an oxygen uptake (V̇O2) plateau is questionable, a V̇O2 plateau criterion based on the individual slope of the V̇O2-work-rate relationship should improve its validity. This approach also allows determination of the ‘total VO2 plateau’, which is in contrast to currently used V̇O2 plateau criteria that are based on the difference in V̇O2max between only two test stages or V̇O2max data points. The ratings of perceived exertion scale has been criticised for being a one-dimensional measure of physical effort and V̇O2max criteria based on a multidimensional psychophysiological approach should increase validity. Visual analogue scales can be used to assess aspects such as muscular pain, determination and overall perceived effort. Furthermore, they are easy to complete and have demonstrated good reliability and validity in clinical and health settings. Future research should explore these and other potential approaches to developing new or improved V̇O2max criteria, so that, ultimately, a standardised set of V̇O2max criteria can be established. At present, however, the greatest challenge is identifying V̇O2max criteria that remain valid across studies.

Attentional Focusing Instructions Influence Force Production and Muscular Activity During Isokinetic Elbow Flexions

Marchant DC, Greig M, and Scott C. Attentional focusing instructions influence force production and muscular activity during isokinetic elbow flexions. J Strength Cond Res 23(8): 2358-2366, 2009-Appropriate verbal instruction is critical to effective guidance of movements. Internal (movement focus) and external (outcome focus) attentional focusing instructions have been shown to influence movement kinetics and muscular activity; this study investigated their effects during a force production task. Twenty-five participants (mean age of 22.72 ± 1.88 years) completed 10 repetitions of single-arm elbow flexions on an isokinetic dynamometer while electromyographical activity of the biceps brachii and net joint elbow flexor torque were measured. Three trials were completed: a control trial to attain maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) data, followed by counterbalanced trials internal and external attentional focus conditions. The external focus exhibited a significantly (p < 0.05) higher peak net joint torque (102.10 ± 2.42%MVC) than the internal condition (95.33 ± 2.08%MVC) and also a greater integral of the torque-time curve (99.90 ± 2.91%MVC) than the internal condition (93.80 ± 2.71%MVC). In addition, the external focus resulted in lower peak electromyography (134.43 ± 16.83%MVC) response when compared with the internal focus condition (155.23 ± 22.54%MVC) as well as lower mean integrated electromyography (127.55 ± 12.24%MVC) than the internal condition (154.99 ± 19.44%MVC). Results indicate that an external attentional focus results in significantly greater force production and lower muscular activity during isokinetic elbow flexions when compared with an internal focus. When instructing clients during maximal force production tasks, practitioners should tailor their instructions to emphasize an external focus of attention. Specifically, attention should be directed onto the movement of the object being moved and away from the specific bodily movements involved in the action.

Novice motor skill performance and task experience is influenced by attentional focusing instructions and instruction preferences

Abstract Novices threw darts during two sessions (one week apart) using either internal or external attentional focusing instructions. During session one, participants used internal instructions for half the throws and external instructions for the other half of the throws, whereas session two required the use of only one strategy for all throws. Accuracy during session one was not affected by attentional strategy, although a significant interaction indicated that accuracy is influenced when changing from one strategy to the other. After session one, significantly more participants reported a preference for the external instructions. During session two, the external strategy group was significantly more accurate than the internal group. Of those using the external strategy, participants indicating an internal strategy preference after practice were significantly less accurate than those who indicated a preference for the external strategy. Participants rated their preferred strategy as requiring less effort than the alternative

Organisational Stressors, Coping, and Coping Effectiveness: A Longitudinal Study with an Elite Coach

The purpose of this study was to examine organisational stressors, coping, and perceptions of coping effectiveness with an elite coach. The participant completed a daily diary over a 28-day period. Each diary entry consisted of an open-ended stressor, a coping response section, and a Likert-type scale measure of coping effectiveness. Inductive and deductive content analysis procedures were used to analyse the diaries, in addition to frequency data which were obtained for both stressors and coping strategies. Findings indicated administration, overload, competition environment, the athletes, and team atmosphere were the salient organisational stressors. Coping strategies used to alleviate such stressors were communication, preparation, planning, social support, and self-talk. These strategies were generally effective, but coping effectiveness declined over the 28-days.

Instructions to adopt an external focus enhance muscular endurance.

Abstract The influence of internal (movement focus) and external (outcome focus) attentional-focusing instructions on muscular endurance were investigated using three exercise protocols with experienced exercisers. Twenty-three participants completed a maximal repetition, assisted bench-press test on a Smiths machine. An external focus of attention resulted in significant (p < .05) improvements in performance compared to the internal focus of attention, but not the control condition. Seventeen participants completed repetitions to failure at 75% 1-RM on free bench-press and squat exercises. In both tasks, externally focused instructions resulted in significantly greater repetitions to failure than control and internal focus conditions (p < .05). These results support previous research showing beneficial effects of externally focused instructions on movement efficiency.

Attentional Focusing Instructions and Force Production

Research progress assessing the role of attentional focusing instructions on skill acquisition and performance has lead researchers to apply this approach to force production tasks. Initial converging evidence indicates that force production tasks are sensitive to verbal instruction; externally focused instructions (onto movement outcomes, or onto the object force is being exerted against) are shown to be more beneficial than internally focused instructions (focusing attention onto the movements being executed). These benefits are observed for maximal and accurate force production, as well as the maintenance of force production in prolonged tasks. A range of mechanisms are identified supporting the proposal that an external focus promotes movement efficiency in line with energy and effort conservation. Future research is required to assess how this developing body of work interacts with the broader understanding of psychological and physiological factors implicated in the effective production, maintenance, and limitation of maximal or sub-maximal forces.

Mental toughness: managerial and age differences

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to investigate whether employees at various levels of managerial positions (e.g. senior, middle, and junior) exhibit different levels of mental toughness. In addition, the study seeks to explore possible effects of age on mental toughness. Design/methodology/approach – A total of 522 participants working in UK/based organisations completed demographic information and the Mental Toughness Questionnaire. Findings – Results revealed significant main effects for both managerial position and age. Follow/up analysis revealed that mental toughness ratings were higher in more senior positions, and that mental toughness generally increased with age. Research limitations/implications – The main limitation of the study is its cross/sectional design. Longitudinal studies investigating the development of mental toughness over time or the effect of mental toughness training are needed. It appears, however, that age plays a role in an individuals mental toughness profile. This suggests that increased exposure to significant life events may have a positive developmental effect on mental toughness. Originality/value – The results of the study would suggest that mental toughness can be developed through appropriate training programmes.

Competitor presence reduces internal attentional focus and improves 16.1km cycling time trial performance.

OBJECTIVES Whilst the presence of a competitor has been found to improve performance, the mechanisms influencing the change in selected work rates during direct competition have been suggested but not specifically assessed. The aim was to investigate the physiological and psychological influences of a visual avatar competitor during a 16.1-km cycling time trial performance, using trained, competitive cyclists. DESIGN Randomised cross-over design. METHODS Fifteen male cyclists completed four 16.1km cycling time trials on a cycle ergometer, performing two with a visual display of themselves as a simulated avatar (FAM and SELF), one with no visual display (DO), and one with themselves and an opponent as simulated avatars (COMP). Participants were informed the competitive avatar was a similar ability cyclist but it was actually a representation of their fastest previous performance. RESULTS Increased performance times were evident during COMP (27.8±2.0min) compared to SELF (28.7±1.9min) and DO (28.4±2.3min). Greater power output, speed and heart rate were apparent during COMP trial than SELF (p<0.05) and DO (p≤0.06). There were no differences between SELF and DO. Ratings of perceived exertion were unchanged across all conditions. Internal attentional focus was significantly reduced during COMP trial (p<0.05), suggesting reduced focused on internal sensations during an increase in performance. CONCLUSIONS Competitive cyclists performed significantly faster during a 16.1-km competitive trial than when performing maximally, without a competitor. The improvement in performance was elicited due to a greater external distraction, deterring perceived exertion.

Sport injury rehabilitation adherence: Perspectives of recreational athletes

Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate recreational participants’ experiences of adhering to a sport injury rehabilitation program. Six participants undertaking a rehabilitation program for a tendonitis‐related injury as a result of sport involvement took part in this study. Data were collected using semi‐structured interviews and were thematically analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (Smith & Osborn, 2003). Five themes emerging from the data set were motivation, confidence, coping, social support, and pain. Specifically, a lack of motivation and confidence were perceived to have a negative effect upon home‐based rehabilitation adherence while ineffective coping strategies, over support and pain, appeared to have an adverse influence on rehabilitation adherence in a clinic setting. The use of effective coping strategies and varied types of social support aided rehabilitation adherence. Applied implications and future research directions are discussed

Speed dependant influence of attentional focusing instructions on force production and muscular activity during isokinetic elbow flexions.

This experiment assessed the influence of internal (movement) or external (outcome) attentional focusing instructions on force production and muscular activity at different movement speeds. Twenty five participants completed 10 reps of single arm elbow flexions on an isokinetic dynamometer at speeds of 60°, 180° and 300°s(-1) under three conditions (control trial, followed by counterbalanced internal and external focus trials). EMG activity of the biceps brachii and net joint elbow flexor torque were measured. An external focus was associated with significantly lower EMG at all speeds when compared to an internal focus. However, an external focus resulted in greater torque production only at 60°s(-1) when compared to an internal focus. These findings suggest that movement speed may influence the efficacy of different attentional focusing instructions, with implications for the instruction of movements in sport, exercise and rehabilitation settings.