David N. Cole

Changes in the motivations, perceptions, and behaviors of recreation users: Displacement and coping in wilderness

We describe how wilderness visitors perceive changes in wilderness use, impacts, and management. We examine how visitors have responded to change, both behaviorally and cognitively. The study was based on a sample of visitors to 19 Forest Service wildernesses in Oregon and Washington. Many respondents said the types of wilderness trips they take have changed since their earlier wilderness trips. Most perceived adverse change. Use has increased (particularly day use), resulting in crowding and a widespread sense that these places seem less like wilderness than they did in the past. Most of these visitors learned to cope with these adverse changes by either adjusting the way they think about these places or by adjusting their behavior. Cognitive coping, particularly rationalization, is very common. Most visitors do not consider changing conditions to be very problematic, probably because their coping mechanisms are successful. This explains lack of support for management actions that restrict access. Very few visitors cannot cope with crowded conditions. Displacement of visitors away from crowded places does not seem prevalent enough for concern about increased crowding and biophysical impact in places in wilderness that are currently lightly used or the validity of on-site visitor surveys.

Vegetation and Soil Restoration on Highly Impacted Campsites in the Eagle Cap Wilderness, Oregon

We assessed the effectiveness of planting techniques (seeding and transplanting) and restoration treatments designed to improve the physical, biological, and chemical properties of soils and ameliorate microclimatic conditions on six closed campsites in subalpine forests. Restoration treatments included scarification, soil amendment with organic matter, compost and soil inoculum, and application of a mulch blanket. Campsite closure, scarification, planting, and soil amendments were successful in increasing recovery rates. The mulch blanket had no effect on recovery. 10 years after campsite closure, vegetation cover was still diminished in comparison to reference conditions on nearby undisturbed sites. Particularly problematic was reestablishment of the low-growing shrub species (particularly Vaccinium scoparium and Phyllodoce empetriformis) that are the most abundant groundcover species in these forests. These species seldom establish from seed. Moreover, survivorship and growth rates are unusually low for transplants. Our results show the relative ease of establishing various species and growth forms in these forests, as well as which species and growth forms respond best to the applied treatments. Results reinforce the importance of avoiding impacts in the first place, the lengthy recovery periods required in these ecosystems, and the intensive restoration efforts needed to speed recovery.

Privacy Functions and Wilderness Recreation: Use Density and Length of Stay Effects on Experience

Abstract Privacy and its functions are desirable attributes of the human experience in wilderness areas, where outstanding opportunities for solitude is legally mandated. Privacy, the ability to choose how and when to interact and exchange information with other people, enhances opportunities for both personal growth and interaction with the wilderness environment. This study assessed the effect of use level and length of stay on the degree to which privacy and its functions were experienced on wilderness trips. Factor analysis identified one privacy experience factor and two privacy function factors, release, and personal growth. Compared to more heavily used trails, hikers on less congested trails experienced more privacy—being significantly more likely to experience “solitude,” being “away from crowds of people,” and “feeling isolated.” But there was no difference related to use level in achieving the beneficial functions of privacy. Hikers on longer trips experienced both more privacy and more of the ...

Restoration of plant cover on campsites in subalpine forests: Sawtooth Wilderness, Idaho

This study assessed the effectiveness of restoration treatments in enhancing the growth of Vaccinium scoparium transplants and plants established from seed on six closed campsites in subalpine forests in the Sawtooth Wilderness, Idaho. In the primary experiment, the soil on all plots was scarified and amended with organic matter; plots varied regarding the type and amount of organic matter in the amendments, whether or not they were fertilized, and whether or not they were covered with a mulch blanket. In the second experiment, plots varied regarding whether or not they were scarified, amended with organic matter, or received supplemental water. Compared to an earlier study in similar forests in the Eagle Cap Wilderness, Oregon, survival and growth of Vaccinium scoparium transplants was high, regardless of treatment, as long as campsites were closed and soils were scarified. In the primary experiment, 92 percent of transplants were still alive after five years and most transplants had increased in size. This greater success may reflect the larger size of transplants used in the Sawtooth study (mean of 315 cm2). The most pronounced main effect of treatments in the primary experiment was the beneficial effect of fertilization with Biosol® on the establishment and growth of seedlings, particularly graminoids. Certain combinations of mulch and type and amount of organic matter were more beneficial than other combinations, but none of these treatments had either consistent or substantial positive effects. Supplemental watering increased restoration success, suggesting that recovery is limited by water. Our results suggest that native vegetation can be restored on highly disturbed campsites in these forests. They also reinforce the importance of avoiding impact in the first place given the lengthy recovery periods required in these ecosystems and the intensive restoration efforts needed to speed recovery.