Troy E. Hall

Emotion and environment: visitors' extraordinary experiences along the Dalton Highway in Alaska.

To assess how the natural environment and social interaction foster emotional outcomes, this study surveyed recreational visitors to the Dalton Highway in northern Alaska (258 guided visitors, 187 independent travelers) about a special experience they had, the factors that influenced it, and the emotions it engendered. Scenery—especially mountains—was the most commonly mentioned feature, with vastness, contrasts, and colors emerging as important dimensions. Seeing wildlife was important in half of the special experiences, especially when it involved being near animals, watching natural behavior, or seeing young animals. Surprising, novel, or unexpected circumstances were explicitly described by nearly one fifth of respondents. The emotions of awe, excitement, and pleasure were strongly associated with special experiences. Experiences in which wildlife and scenery were experienced either as part of a social group or during a recreational activity generated significantly higher levels of positive affect. These findings emphasize the importance of positive emotions as a benefit of recreational activities and provide insight into the nature of extraordinary experiences.

Temporal and spatial displacement: evidence from a high-use reservoir and alternate sites.

This study explored the extent of displacement and the types of displacement behaviors used in response to crowding at a popular reservoir in Oregon. Data collected through a mail-back survey of recreational users contacted at the target site (n = 1,069) demonstrated that about half altered their behavior in some way because of crowding. Interviews with users (n = 168) at three other nearby “alternative” sites indicated that about half of those who had been to the target site (Lake Billy Chinook) go there less than in the past, while about 20–30% reduced their use because of adverse conditions encountered at Lake Billy Chinook, primarily crowding or undesirable management policies. Using a typology adopted from the substitution literature, data showed that changing the timing of visits (temporal displacement) was the most common strategy for coping with crowding (42% of respondents), but shifts in the location of use at the reservoir and between reservoirs (spatial displacement) were also common (26% of respondents). Users who exhibit displacement behaviors were also more sensitive to conflict, facility issues, and environmental impacts.

Response Format Effects in Questions about Norms: Implications for the Reliability and Validity of the Normative Approach

Several studies have demonstrated that altering the format (question wording or presentation format) can alter responses obtained from normative questions. This study extends that research with two experiments. In a study of McKenzie River boaters in Oregon ( n = 225), respondents received either a semiopen (fill in the blank) or closed (scale with anchored points) format of questions about acceptable waiting time at boat launches, percent of time spent in sight of other boaters, and number of groups met per day. In the second study, at Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge, 774 respondents received either the semiopen format or one of two closed formats (anchored with 30 or 60), asking for the acceptable number of motorboats and canoes. In both cases, norm prevalence was significantly higher in the closed format (46 to 78%) than in the semiopen format (27 to 60%), and the average increase from one format to the other was 23%. This suggests either that respondents are more likely to guess at a number when given a closed response frame or that the closed format provides important context that elicits valid responses. Examination of the mean values obtained under the different response formats suggest that both processes may be operating, but the latter is more likely. It appears that closed formats, like photographs, offer a cognitively easier and more meaningful task.

Experiencing the restorative components of wilderness environments: Does congestion interfere and does length of exposure matter?

Wilderness should provide opportunities for stress reduction and restoration of mental fatigue. Visitors, surveyed as they exited wilderness trailheads, were asked for self-assessments of stress reduction and mental rejuvenation and the extent to which they experienced various restorative components of the environment—attributes deemed by attention restorative theory to be conducive to restoration. Day and overnight hikers on both very high use and moderate use trails were studied. Most respondents reported substantial stress reduction and mental rejuvenation and most experienced the environment in ways considered conducive to restoration. At the moderate to high use levels we studied, psychological restoration did not vary significantly with level of congestion, suggesting that concern about restorative experiences is not a valid rationale for limiting use on wilderness trails. Day trips reduced stress and allowed for mental rejuvenation to the same degree that overnight trips did. However, several of the restorative components of environment were experienced to a significantly greater degree as length of trip increased.

Who cares about encounters? Differences between those with and without norms

The normative approach can be a useful tool for managers in setting standards for acceptable conditions when there is substantial agreement among recreationists. However, recent research has raised questions about whether norms are present universally. The question of the relationship between the presence of norms and other variables has not been investigated in detail. This study uses a sample of hikers and stock users from the Eagle Cap Wilderness in Oregon to investigate the relationships between variables including mode of travel, destination (high or low‐use), past wilderness experience, attitudes toward impacts, attitudes toward management practices, and the presence of individual norms for encounters. Approximately 44% of respondents reported a norm for encounters with others, 29% said encounters matter but could not give a number, and 28% said that encounters do not matter to them. Residence, trailhead use level, and past wilderness experience were related to the presence of norms. Those with norm...

Understanding nature‐related behaviors among children through a theory of reasoned action approach

The Theory of Reasoned Action has proven to be a valuable tool for predicting and understanding behavior and, as such, provides a potentially important basis for environmental education program design. This study used a Theory of Reasoned Action approach to examine a unique type of behavior (nature‐related activities) and a unique population (early adolescents). Participants (n = 164, ages 9–14) reported their attitudes, subjective norms, age, gender, behavioral intentions, and behaviors in a written questionnaire. Results showed mild success in accounting for childrens nature‐related behaviors and intentions (R 2=.05 to .33). In general, the ability to predict intentions was greater than the ability to explain actual behaviors. Findings suggest that environmental educators should focus on attitudes when the goal is to achieve behavior change. Future research should compare a Theory of Reasoned Action approach with several alternative frameworks for explaining childrens nature‐related behaviors, and investigate the relationship between behaviors and behavioral intentions to see why a discrepancy exists in the ability to account for each construct. To more fully influence behavior in environmental education programs, educators may need to address other factors besides attitudes and subjective norms.

Do Recreation Motivations and Wilderness Involvement Relate to Support for Wilderness Management? A Segmentation Analysis

Surveys show relatively little support for use restrictions to protect wilderness experiences. However, such conclusions based on aggregate data could hide important differences among visitors. Visitors with more wilderness-dependent trip motives were hypothesized to be more supportive of use restrictions. Using survey data from visitors to 13 wildernesses, cluster analysis of motivations and wilderness involvement generated three clusters that differed in sensitivity to social conditions and support for use restrictions. The group with motives most aligned with the Wilderness Act was slightly more adversely affected by social conditions and more supportive of regulations. However, none of the groups supported use restrictions to protect opportunities for solitude.

Factors influencing consumption of farmed seafood products in the Pacific northwest

This study used a mail survey (n=1159 usable surveys) of Pacific northwest (US) residents to understand general seafood preferences (familiarity, price, freshness, health and environmental concerns), beliefs and attitudes specific to aquaculture versus wild products, and how those cognitive factors affect decisions to consume types of farmed seafood products. Respondents strongly agreed that seafood is healthy, and they preferred wild over farmed products. Many respondents were uncertain about human health and environmental benefits and problems associated with aquaculture. While there was agreement that aquaculture reduces pressure on wild fish, there was equally strong agreement that it has the same problems as other agricultural practices. Belief in the superiority of wild seafood was a strong predictor of consumption choices. Belief in the benefits of aquaculture was positively related to higher consumption of farmed products, but--unexpectedly--beliefs related to environmental and health problems associated with aquaculture did not predict specific consumption choices. Nearly half of respondents recalled hearing or reading about aquaculture in the mass media, and recall of negative stories contributed to a general preference for wild products, but not consumption of specific types of farmed products. Consumption of the different classes of products had some different predictors, and communication efforts directed at different beliefs may have different impacts on consumer behavior.

Understanding concepts of place in recreation research and management.

Over a 3-day weekend in the spring of 2004 a group of scientists interested in extending understanding of place as applied in recreation research and management convened a working session in Portland, Oregon. The purpose of the gathering was to clarify their understanding of place-related concepts, approaches to the study of people-place relations, and the application of that understanding in recreation management for the purpose of integrating perspectives from different disciplines, discussing approaches to understanding and measuring sense of place, and other questions around the study and application of place-related concepts. Topics that generated the most discussion included how social processes influence place meanings, how place meanings are shared and negoitated within social groups, and when and how place meanings and attachments focus, reduce, or avert conflict in natural resource planning and management. This collection of papers is a result of that meeting.

Precision and Rhetoric in Media Reporting About Contamination in Farmed Salmon

This study examined how health risks and benefits are presented in newsprint stories about contamination in farmed salmon. Following recent research, the quality of information was captured as the level of numerical and contextual precision. The authors supplemented and critiqued this analysis with an examination of rhetorical markers of certainty and magnitude. In a census of 83 stories focusing on two research studies, most statements presented information in a qualitative format, deemed to be the least informative for readers, although most stories contained a limited amount of high-precision information, generally as guidelines for consumers. However, journalists’ rhetorical practices conveyed conflicting interpretations of the same data, leading to inconclusive messages about risks and benefits. Even highly precise numeric data were often presented in ways that were likely to confuse readers. Results illustrate a need to go beyond analyzing precision levels when studying how the media present scientific research with implications for consumer health, as rhetorical formulations change the meaning of risk statements.