David S. Bickham

Time Well Spent? Relating Television Use to Children's Free-Time Activities

OBJECTIVES. This study assessed the claim that childrens television use interferes with time spent in more developmentally appropriate activities. METHODS. Data came from the first wave of the Child Development Supplement, a nationally representative sample of children aged 0 to 12 in 1997 (N = 1712). Twenty-four-hour time-use diaries from 1 randomly chosen weekday and 1 randomly chosen weekend day were used to assess childrens time spent watching television, time spent with parents, time spent with siblings, time spent reading (or being read to), time spent doing homework, time spent in creative play, and time spent in active play. Ordinary least squares multiple regression was used to assess the relationship between childrens television use and time spent pursuing other activities. RESULTS. Results indicated that time spent watching television both with and without parents or siblings was negatively related to time spent with parents or siblings, respectively, in other activities. Television viewing also was negatively related to time spent doing homework for 7- to 12-year-olds and negatively related to creative play, especially among very young children (younger than 5 years). There was no relationship between time spent watching television and time spent reading (or being read to) or to time spent in active play. CONCLUSIONS. The results of this study are among the first to provide empirical support for the assumptions made by the American Academy of Pediatrics in their screen time recommendations. Time spent viewing television both with and without parents and siblings present was strongly negatively related to time spent interacting with parents or siblings. Television viewing was associated with decreased homework time and decreased time in creative play. Conversely, there was no support for the widespread belief that television interferes with time spent reading or in active play.

When the Television Is Always On Heavy Television Exposure and Young Children’s Development

In American homes, the television is on approximately 6 hours a day on average. Yet little is known about the impact of growing up in the near constant presence of television. This study examines the prevalence and developmental impact of “heavy-television” households on very young children aged 0 to 6 drawn from a nationally representative sample (N = 756). Thirty-five percent of the children lived in a home where the television is on “always” or “most of the time,” even if no one is watching. Regardless of their age, children from heavy-television households watched more television and read less than other children. Furthermore, children exposed to constant television were less likely to be able to read than other children.

Evidence for the need to support adolescents dealing with harassment and cyber-harassment: Prevalence, progression, and impact

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of harassment in high school and into university, and the impact of one particular form of harassment: cyber-harassment. Participants were 1,368 students at one US and two Canadian universities (mean age = 21.1 years, 676 female students). They responded on five-point scales to questions about the frequency and impact of harassment. A total of 33.6% of students stated they had been cyber-harassed and 28.4% had been harassed off-line when in high school. Also, 8.6% were cyber-harassed and 6.4% were harassed off-line while in university. Hierarchical logistic regression analyses show that the type of harassment experienced in high school is associated with the type of harassment experienced in university. Various negative outcomes of cyber-harassment were also identified.

Characteristics of Screen Media Use Associated With Higher BMI in Young Adolescents

OBJECTIVES: This study investigates how characteristics of young adolescents’ screen media use are associated with their BMI. By examining relationships between BMI and both time spent using each of 3 screen media and level of attention allocated to use, we sought to contribute to the understanding of mechanisms linking media use and obesity. METHODS: We measured heights and weights of 91 13- to 15-year-olds and calculated their BMIs. Over 1 week, participants completed a weekday and a Saturday 24-hour time-use diary in which they reported the amount of time they spent using TV, computers, and video games. Participants carried handheld computers and responded to 4 to 7 random signals per day by completing onscreen questionnaires reporting activities to which they were paying primary, secondary, and tertiary attention. RESULTS: Higher proportions of primary attention to TV were positively associated with higher BMI. The difference between 25th and 75th percentiles of attention to TV corresponded to an estimated +2.4 BMI points. Time spent watching television was unrelated to BMI. Neither duration of use nor extent of attention paid to video games or computers was associated with BMI. CONCLUSIONS: These findings support the notion that attention to TV is a key element of the increased obesity risk associated with TV viewing. Mechanisms may include the influence of TV commercials on preferences for energy-dense, nutritionally questionable foods and/or eating while distracted by TV. Interventions that interrupt these processes may be effective in decreasing obesity among screen media users.

Sex-Related Online Behaviors and Adolescents’ Body and Sexual Self-Perceptions

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: This study investigated: (1) the prevalence and development of 2 receptive (sexually explicit Internet material [SEIM] use and sexual information seeking) and 2 interactive (cybersex and general social networking site [SNS] use) online behaviors in adolescence; (2) whether development of these behaviors predict adolescents’ body and sexual self-perceptions; and (3) whether parental strategies regarding adolescents’ Internet use reduce engagement in sex-related online behaviors. METHODS: Four-wave longitudinal data among 1132 seventh- to 10th-grade Dutch adolescents (mean age at wave 1: 13.95 years; 52.7% boys) were collected. Developmental trajectories of sex-related online behaviors were estimated by using latent growth curve modeling. Self-perception outcomes at wave 4 and parental strategies predicting online behaviors were investigated by adding regression paths to growth models. RESULTS: Boys occasionally and increasingly used SEIM. Patterns for girls’ SEIM use and boys’ and girls’ sexual information seeking and cybersex were consistently low. SNS use, however, was a common, daily activity for both. Higher initial levels and/or faster increases in sex-related online behaviors generally predicted less physical self-esteem (girls’ SNS use only), more body surveillance, and less satisfaction with sexual experience. Private Internet access and less parental rule setting regarding Internet use predicted greater engagement in sex-related online behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: Although most sex-related online behaviors are not widespread among youth, adolescents who engage in such behaviors are at increased risk for developing negative body and sexual self-perceptions. Particular attention should be paid to adolescents’ SNS use because this behavior is most popular and may, through its interactive characteristics, elicit more critical self-evaluations. Prevention efforts should focus on parents’ role in reducing risky sex-related online behaviors.

Adolescent health literacy and the Internet: challenges and opportunities.

Purpose of review Adolescents have increasingly turned to the Internet as a resource for insight into their health questions and concerns. However, the extent to which adolescents will benefit from using the Internet as a source for health information will be determined in great part by their level of media literacy and health literacy. The purpose of this review is to explore challenges that adolescents face when using the Internet to access health information and opportunities for intervention. Recent findings Adolescents must be able to access, understand, analyze, and evaluate health information on the Internet and then apply this information to make appropriate health decisions. Challenges faced by adolescents fall into the realm of functional literacy (e.g., not being able to spell a medical term needed in a search), critical literacy (e.g., not being able to differentiate accurate from inaccurate online health information), and, lastly, interactive literacy (e.g., translating online health information to appropriate health behaviors). Summary More research is needed in this field to better understand the challenges and to propose effective solutions. However, a multifaceted approach that engages policymakers, educators, healthcare providers, online health information providers, and parents may be positioned to make the largest impact.

Measuring Youth Media Exposure A Multimodal Method for Investigating the Influence of Media on Digital Natives

Measuring Youth Media Exposure (MYME) methodology was developed in response to a need for more sensitive, comprehensive, and reliable measures of media use and exposure in a rapidly evolving and increasingly complex mobile digital environment. MYME combines multiple measurement modes to locate its findings in relation to historical trends and superimposes those components to complement, cross-validate, and provide strengths where other components have limitations. Self-collected as the individual moves through media-saturated environments, MYME combines established, validated media use measures, Recall Estimation and Time-Use Diaries, with Ecological Momentary Assessment in two forms, Questionnaire (Q-EMA) and Video (V-EMA). Triggered at random intervals during study participants’ waking hours, Ecological Momentary Assessment captures in detail complex behaviors, including multitasking and background exposure, simultaneously with media content, contexts of its use, and individuals’ responses, attention, and affective states. MYME measurement modes are focused, but open-ended so that they can be used to measure similar media uses and exposures as technology evolves over time. This allows MYME to be applied to prospective longitudinal studies of the temporal relations between media exposure, human development, and the physical, mental, and social health of children and adolescents, positioning MYME to test theorized contributions of media use to a wide variety of health and developmental outcomes. The pilot study reported here followed a cohort of 126 13- to 15-year-olds in three annual waves, measuring their media use and exposure, health status, and health-related behaviors. When implemented in future studies, MYME will be consolidated into a smartphone app which signals participants and collects and uploads time-linked data to a secure cloud-based data shell, where it can be accessed in a continuous manner and analyzed for specific research questions within and across participants.

Exploring the Perspectives of Obese Adolescent Girls

To understand obese adolescent girls’ perspectives regarding their weight and health we studied video intervention/prevention assessment audiovisual narratives created by 14 obese girls ages 12 to 20 years. The narratives included interviews, monologues, and daily activities. Themes included illness conceptualizations, health concerns, health misinformation, and distress regarding appearance deriving from both within and without. The predominant theme was ambivalence about obesity. Close examination of these themes revealed potential footholds for intervention. Sensitive exploration of issues such as appearance and psychosocial distress might strengthen the patient–clinician partnership in identifying a patient’s strengths and motivating weight loss.

Digital Media, Anxiety, and Depression in Children

There are growing concerns about the impact of digital technologies on children’s emotional well-being, particularly regarding fear, anxiety, and depression. The 2 mental health categories of anxiety and depression will be discussed together because there is significant symptom overlap and comorbidity. Early research has explored the impact of traditional media (eg, television, movies) on children’s acute fears, which can result in anxieties and related sleep disturbances that are difficult to remedy. More recent research deals with the interactive nature of newer media, especially social media, and their impacts on anxiety and depression. Key topics of inquiry include the following: anxiety and depression associated with technology-based negative social comparison, anxiety resulting from lack of emotion-regulation skills because of substituted digital media use, social anxiety from avoidance of social interaction because of substituted digital media use, anxiety because of worries about being inadequately connected, and anxiety, depression, and suicide as the result of cyberbullying and related behavior. A growing body of research confirms the relationship between digital media and depression. Although there is evidence that greater electronic media use is associated with depressive symptoms, there is also evidence that the social nature of digital communication may be harnessed in some situations to improve mood and to promote health-enhancing strategies. Much more research is needed to explore these possibilities.

Media effects as health research: how pediatricians have changed the study of media and child development

Abstract Although the study of media and children has long been interdisciplinary, child health researchers and pediatric journals have joined their social science counterparts to investigate media effects over the past several decades. Research on how media use influences child health and development has increased exponentially in pediatric journals between the early 1990s and the present. Communication and psychology scholars have begun to publish their media effects work in medical journals. Health researchers, who previously synthesized existing science on media effects into policy statements and recommendations, now conduct original research. In this article, we review this transformation by documenting publication patterns in journals from different disciplines and discussing possible explanations for the shift. We consider the benefits and challenges presented by this evolution in the study of media and children, and postulate about how it has shaped the future direction of research and policy.