David Tod

‘Psyching-Up’ and Muscular Force Production

Psyching-up refers to self-directed cognitive strategies used immediately prior to or during skill execution that are designed to enhance performance. This review focuses on research that has investigated the effect of psyching-up on force production; specifically, strength, muscular endurance and power. Although firm conclusions are not possible, the research tentatively suggests that psyching-up may enhance performance during dynamic tasks requiring strength and/or muscular endurance. However, more research is required. Power has received scant empirical attention and there are not enough data to support any conclusions. Preparatory arousal appears to be the most effective strategy although other strategies like imagery, self-talk and attentional focus also have empirical support. The range of tasks that have been used to measure force production have been limited tomovements such as handgrip, leg extension, bench press, sit-ups, pressups, pull-ups, and the standing broad jump. Additionally, most studies have used undergraduate and/or untrained samples. Only a very small number of studies have examined well-trained individuals. Currently, no explanation for why psyching-up may influence force production has any substantive support. Although a small number of studies have examined moderating and mediating variables, few consistent patterns have emerged and knowledge in this area is somewhat restricted. Given the importance that many athletes place on their mental preparation just prior to performance this is an area that warrants further examination. Research needs to examine a range of complex sport-specific tasks and use well-trained samples. Additionally, research needs to further examine why psyching-up may enhance force production.

Effects of Instructional and Motivational Self-talk on the Vertical Jump

Tod, DA, Thatcher, R, McGuigan, M, and Thatcher, J. Effects of instructional and motivational self-talk on the vertical jump. J Strength Cond Res 23(1): 196-202, 2009-The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of instructional and motivational self-talk on performance and the kinematics of the vertical jump. After completing a 10-minute warm-up on a stationary bike, 12 men (mean ± SD; 20.8 ± 3.0 years, 77.8 ± 13.5 kg, 1.78 ± 0.07 m) and 12 women (22.1 ± 5.8 years, 62.6 ± 6.7 kg, 1.65 ± 0.05 m) performed 4 vertical jumps, 3 minutes apart, on a force plate set at a 1000-Hz sampling frequency. Before each trial, participants engaged in 1 of 4 counterbalanced interventions, verbalized out loud, which included motivational self-talk, instructional self-talk, neutral self-talk, or no instruction. One-way analysis of variance with repeated measures, followed by paired t-tests with a Bonferroni adjustment, were used to analyze data. Both instructional (0.415 m) and motivational (0.414 m) self-talk led to greater center-of-mass displacement than neutral self-talk (0.403 m, p = 0.001 and 0.003, respectively, alpha set at 0.008). Both instructional (263.9 N·s) and motivational self-talk (261.2 N·s) led to greater impulse than neutral self-talk (254.1 N·s, p = 0.005 and 0.004, respectively, alpha set at 0.025). Both instructional self-talk (582.6°·s−1) and motivational self-talk (592.3°·s−1) led to quicker angular rotation about the knee than neutral self-talk (565.8°·s−1, p = 0.001 and 0.018, respectively, alpha set at 0.025). These results may indicate that self-talk leads to greater angular velocity about the knee, thus generating greater impulse and increased jump height-a conjecture that needs empirical testing. Self-talk may contribute to improved performance in sports requiring power-based skills.

A systematic review of the drive for muscularity research area

The purpose of the current article was to perform a systematic review of 52 studies in which the drive for muscularity (DFM) has been measured. We included all the papers we found published from 2000 until May 2012. Variables most consistently related to DFM are (1) gender, with males reporting higher levels than females; (2) anxiety and body shame; (3) perceptions that the ideal physique involves high muscularity; (4) behaviours associated with increasing muscularity, including dietary manipulation and resistance training; and (5) the internalisation of a muscular physique as the standard to which to aspire. The DFM was inconsistently correlated with self-esteem, physical characteristics and actual-ideal discrepancies. Research has focused on white male students and been cross-sectional and descriptive. Further theory-driven work is needed with a wider range of populations to enhance the conceptualisation, measurement and understanding of the DFM.

Self-talk influences vertical jump performance and kinematics in male rugby union players

Abstract We examined the effects of instructional and motivational self-talk on centre of mass displacement and hip kinematics during the vertical jump. Twenty-four male rugby union players (age 21.1 years, s = 3.5; body mass 81.0 kg, s = 8.9; height 1.80 m, s = 0.06) performed three vertical jump tests, with a 2 min rest between jumps. Before each jump, participants engaged in one of three counterbalanced interventions (motivational self-talk, instructional self-talk or no-intervention). Motivational self-talk led to greater centre of mass displacement (0.602 m, s = 0.076; P = 0.012) than the no-intervention control (0.583 m, s = 0.085). Centre of mass displacement did not differ between instructional self-talk and the control condition or between motivational and instructional self-talk. Motivational (100.75°, s = 16.05; P = 0.001) and instructional self-talk (106.14°, s = 17.04; P = 0.001) led to greater hip displacement than the no-intervention control (94.11°, s = 17.14). There was also a significant difference in hip displacement between motivational and instructional self-talk (P = 0.014), although there was no difference between instructional self-talk and the control condition. Motivational (451.69 °/s, s = 74.34; P = 0.008) and instructional self-talk (462.01 °/s, s = 74.37; P = 0.001) led to greater hip rotation velocity than the no-intervention control (434.37 °/s, s = 75.37), although there was no difference between the two self-talk interventions. These results indicate that self-talk may influence performance and technique during the vertical jump in male rugby players.

Psyching-up enhances force production during the bench press exercise.

We investigated the effect of “psyching-up‘’ on force production during the bench press. Twelve men (mean age ± SD: 27.4 ± 11.2 years) and 8 women (20.9 ± 2.5 years) with strength-training experience performed 5 bench press repetitions on a modified Biodex isokinetic dynamometer during 3 interventions. The interventions were counterbalanced and included a free-choice psych-up, a cognitive distraction, and an attention-placebo. Peak force recorded after psyching-up (mean ± SD: 764 ± 269 N·m) was significantly different from both distraction (703 ± 282 N·m, p = 0.003) and attention-placebo (708 ± 248 N·m, p = 0.01). The mean percentage increase in peak force from distraction to psyching-up was 11.8% (6 to 18%, 95% confidence interval [CI]) and 8.1% from placebo to psyching-up (3 to 13%, 95% CI). The results of the present study indicate that psychingup may increase force production during the bench press exercise in participants with at least 1 year strength-training experience.

Maximal strength and cortisol responses to psyching-up during the squat exercise

We studied the effect of psyching-up on one-repetition maximum (1-RM) performance and salivary cortisol responses during the squat exercise. Ten men (age 21.6 ± 1.4 years; mean ± s) and ten women (age 22.4 ± 2.8 years) with weight training experience of 4.5 ± 2.0 years participated in this study. One-repetition maximum squats were performed on a Smith machine during each of two different intervention conditions that were counterbalanced and consisted of a free choice psych-up and a cognitive distraction. Saliva samples were obtained at the beginning of each test session and immediately after the final 1-RM attempt. No significant difference in 1-RM was identified between psyching-up (104 ± 50 kg) and cognitive distraction (106 ± 52 kg). Performing a 1-RM in the squat exercise significantly increased salivary cortisol concentrations during both conditions (P  < 0.05). There was no significant difference in salivary cortisol responses between conditions. These results suggest that psyching-up does not increase 1-RM performance during the squat exercise in strength-trained individuals.

Predicting drive for muscularity behavioural engagement from body image attitudes and emotions

We examined the potential moderating effects of appearance investment, body image disturbance, and situational body image dysphoria on the drive for muscularity attitude-behaviour relationship. Participants (339 British college men, M(AGE)=20.00 years, SD=2.59) completed drive for muscularity attitude and behaviour, appearance investment, body image disturbance, and situational body image dysphoria measures. Results indicated higher levels of appearance investment, body image disturbance, and situational body image dysphoria were associated with increases in the drive for muscularity attitudes relationship with physique-enhancing behavioural engagement. Results help extend recent research that has moved beyond identifying correlates to examining ways that groups of variables interact to predict drive for muscularity behavioural engagement and may contribute to theory development.

Athletes' careers in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland: Differences in the evolution of research and support programs in two neighbor nations

Athletes’ Careers Across Cultures is the first book of its kind to bring together a truly global spread of leading sports psychology career researchers and practitioners into one comprehensive resource. This extensive volume traces the evolution of athlete career research through a cultural lens and maps the complex topography of athletes’ careers across national boundaries exploring how social and cultural discourses shape their development. [Book Synopsis]

Drive for leanness and health-related behavior within a social/cultural perspective

We examined relationships between drive for leanness and perceived media pressure to change appearance, internalization of an ideal physique, exercise frequency, and dieting. Men and women (N=353) completed the Drive for Leanness Scale, the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire-3, the Eating Attitudes Test-26, and a demographic inventory. Drive for leanness was significantly correlated with athletic internalization (.52), pressure to attain an ideal physique (.25), exercise frequency (.36), and dieting (.25). Structural equation modeling revealed a good fitting model (χ(2)=2.85, p<.241; CFI=.99; NNFI=.98; RMSEA=.04; SRMR=.02) with internalization predicting drive for leanness, which in turn predicted dieting and exercise. Results reveal social/cultural theory helps enhance the understanding of the drive for leanness and its relationship with health-related behavior.

Gender invariance and correlates of the Drive for Leanness Scale

We examined the drive for leanness scales gender invariance and its relationships with health-related behavior and body image-related drives. Men (N=342) and women (N=309) attending British universities completed the drive for leanness scale, drive for thinness scale, drive for muscularity scale, and a demographic inventory. Support for configural and metric, but not scalar, invariance emerged. Drive for leanness was positively correlated with weight training frequency, supplement use, drive for thinness, and drive for muscularity in both genders. Results provide guidance on comparing drive for leanness scale scores across gender and contribute to a coherent understanding of the drive for leanness and its correlates.