David V. Day

Meta-Analytic Review of Leader-Member Exchange Theory: Correlates and Construct Issues

The leader-member exchange (LMX) literature is reviewed using meta-analysis. Relationships between LMX and its correlates are examined, as are issues related to the LMX construct, including measurement and leader-member agreement. Results suggest significant relationships between LMX and job performance, satisfaction with supervision, overall satisfaction, commitment, role conflict, role clarity, member competence, and turnover intentions. The relationship between LMX and actual turnover was not significant. Leader and member LMX perceptions were only moderately related. Partial support was found for measurement instrument and perspective (i.e., leader vs. member) as moderators of the relationships between LMX and its correlates. Meta-analysis showed that the LMX7 (7-item LMX) measure has the soundest psychometric properties of all instruments and that LMX is congruent with numerous empirical relationships associated with transformational leadership. Within the broad area of organizationa l leadership, leader-member exchange (LMX) theory has evolved into one of the more interesting and useful approaches for studying hypothesized linkages between leadership processes and outcomes. First proposed by Graeri and colleagues (Dansereau, Cashman, & Graen, 1973; Dansereau, Graen, & Haga, 1975; Graen, 1976; Graen & Cashman, 1975), LMX is distinguished from other leadership theories by its focus on the dyadic relationship between a leader and a member. Unlike traditional theories that seek to explain leadership as a function of personal characteristics of the leader, features of the situation, or an interaction between the two, LMX is unique in its adoption of the dyadic relationship as the level of analysis. Although the theory has been modified and expanded

Leadership development:: A review in context

Abstract Interest in leadership development is strong, especially among practitioners. Nonetheless, there is conceptual confusion regarding distinctions between leader and leadership development, as well as disconnection between the practice of leadership development and its scientific foundation. The present review examines the field of leadership development through three contextual lenses: (1) understanding the difference between leader development and leadership development ( conceptual context); (2) reviewing how state-of-the-art development is being conducted in the context of ongoing organizational work ( practice context); and (3) summarizing previous research that has implications for leadership development ( research context). The overall purpose is to bridge the practice and science of leadership development by showing the importance of building both human and social capital in organizations. Specific practices that are reviewed include 360-degree feedback and executive coaching, mentoring and networking, and job assignments and action learning. Practices and research are framed in terms of a general need to link leader development, which is primarily based on enhancing human capital, with leadership development that emphasizes the creation of social capital in organizations.

Executive Leadership and Organizational Performance: Suggestions for a New Theory and Methodology

It is argued that the question over whether top-level leadership significantly affects organizationalperformance can be clarified by properly interpreting the results of executive succession studies that have used economic aspects of organizational performance as criteria. When several methodological concerns are addressed, it is evident that executive leadership can explain as much as 45% of an organizations performance. In order to more fully understand how upperlevel leaders affect organizational performance, we propose that a theory of executive leadership be developed. Guidelines are providedfor developing such a theory. Specifically, problems to avoid, methodologies to consider, and places to look for relevant theory are discussed.

Cross-cultural comparison of leadership prototypes

Despite the recognized importance of leadership in organizational contexts, relatively few studies have examined the concept of leadership in various cultures. To better understand cross-cultural leadership, this study compares leadership prototypes across several countries using an attribute-rating task. Subjects (N = 142) from eight countries rated a list of 59 attributes according to how well each fit their prototype of a business leader. Results indicate significant differences among the ratings provided by subjects from different countries of traits identified as high, medium, and low in prototypicality. Subsequent multidimensional scaling aggregated across trait ratings yielded a three-dimensional configuration of countries. The relative distances between countries are discussed with respect to Hofstedes (1980) dimensions of national culture. Potential implications for selection and training of expatriate managers are discussed.

DO CHAMELEONS GET AHEAD? THE EFFECTS OF SELF-MONITORING ON MANAGERIAL CAREERS

This study tracked 139 graduates of the same masters of business administration program for five years and demonstrated significant main effects of the personality variable self-monitoring on care...

Self-monitoring personality at work: a meta-analytic investigation of construct validity.

The validity of self-monitoring personality in organizational settings was examined. Meta-analyses were conducted (136 samples; total N = 23,191) investigating the relationship between self-monitoring personality and work-related variables, as well as the reliability of various self-monitoring measures. Results suggest that self-monitoring has relevance for understanding many organizational concerns, including job performance and leadership emergence. Sample-weighted mean differences favoring male respondents were also noted, suggesting that the sex-related effects for self-monitoring may partially explain noted disparities between men and women at higher organizational levels (i.e., the glass ceiling). Theory building and additional research are needed to better understand the construct-related inferences about self-monitoring personality, especially in terms of the performance, leadership, and attitudes of those at top organizational levels.

Development of a Short form for the Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices Test

The Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices Test (APM) is a popular measure of higher order general cognitive ability (g). Its use in both basic research and applied settings is partially attributable to its apparent low level of culture loading. However, a major drawback curtailing more widespread use is its length; the APM is a 36-item power test with an administration time of 40-60 minutes. The present study reports on the development of a 12-item short form of the APM that demonstrates psychometric properties similar to the long form, but with a substantially shorter administration time. The ultimate goal is to provide researchers and practitioners with a version of the APM that can better meet their needs by providing a sound assessment of general intelligence in a shorter time frame than is available with the present form.

Effects of Self-Monitoring on Technical, Contextual, and Assignment-Specific Performance A STUDY OF CROSS-NATIONAL WORK PERFORMANCE RATINGS

This study investigates the relationship between self-monitoring and multidimensional performance ratings of global assignees. It was hypothesized that supervisors’ performance ratings of expatriate subordinates would depend on three factors: (a) individual differences in self-monitoring, (b) supervisor-subordinate national similarity, and (c) the dimension of performance being rated (technical, contextual, or expatriate-specific). Analysis of variance results from 78 supervisor/subordinate dyads indicated significant interactions among these three factors. The significant interaction for the contextual performance dimension suggests that high self-monitors were rated more favorably by supervisors of the same nationality. Low self-monitors’ ratings were somewhat less affected by rater-ratee national similarity. Self-monitoring also had a significant main effect on ratings of assignment-specific performance. These results suggest self-monitoring personality has differential effects across performance dimensions and rater context. Future research implications are provided for examining the relationship between personality and job performance dimensions. Practical recommendations for the performance management of global assignees are provided.

A new frame for frame-of-reference training: enhancing the construct validity of assessment centers.

The authors undertook a comprehensive examination of the construct validity of an assessment center in this study by (a) gathering many different types of evidence to evaluate the strength of the inference between predictor measures and constructs (e.g., reliability, accuracy, convergent and discriminant relationships), (b) introducing a theoretically relevant intervention (frame-of-reference [FOR] training) aimed at improving construct validity, and (c) examining the effect of this intervention on criterion-related validity (something heretofore unexamined in the assessment center literature). Results from 58 assessees and 122 assessors suggested that FOR training was effective at improving the reliability, accuracy, convergent and discriminant validity, and criterion-related validity of assessment center ratings. Findings are discussed in terms of implications and future directions for both FOR training and assessment center practice.

Predicting Job Performance Across Organizations: The Interaction of Work Orientation and Psychological Climate

We investigated whether perceived psychological climate interacted with an individual personality dimension in predicting the job performance of a national sample (n = 483) of accounting professionals. Work orientation (Wo; Gough, 1985)-a specialty index developed from the California Psychological Inventory-was used to predict job performance as a function of climate. Results from a series of hierarchical regression analyses indicated that overall climate, a composite offactors derivedfrom the Litwin-Stringer (1968) Organizational Climate Questionnaire, significantly interacted with Wo such that more positive climates were associated with better performance for high Wo individuals regardless of organizational tenure. Subsequent analyses indicated that three specific climate dimensions (viz., Warmth-Support, Reward, and Accommodation) significantly interacted with Wo in predicting job performance. Consistent with an interactional perspective, these results suggest a need to consider both personality and situational characteristics to better understand the job performance of accounting professionals across organizations.