David V. James

The role of warning behaviors in threat assessment: an exploration and suggested typology.

The concept of warning behaviors offers an additional perspective in threat assessment. Warning behaviors are acts which constitute evidence of increasing or accelerating risk. They are acute, dynamic, and particularly toxic changes in patterns of behavior which may aid in structuring a professionals judgment that an individual of concern now poses a threat - whether the actual target has been identified or not. They require an operational response. A typology of eight warning behaviors for assessing the threat of intended violence is proposed: pathway, fixation, identification, novel aggression, energy burst, leakage, directly communicated threat, and last resort warning behaviors. Previous research on risk factors associated with such warning behaviors is reviewed, and examples of each warning behavior from various intended violence cases are presented, including public figure assassination, adolescent and adult mass murder, corporate celebrity stalking, and both domestic and foreign acts of terrorism. Practical applications and future research into warning behaviors are suggested.

Association between violence, psychosis, and relationship to victim in stalkers

50 stalkers were assessed before their trials. Serious violence was significantly associated with previous sexual intimacy between stalker and victim; such stalkers were significantly less likely than those who stalked strangers to have psychotic illness.

A Research Review of Public Figure Threats, Approaches, Attacks, and Assassinations in the United States

The authors review extant research on threats, approaches, attacks, and assassinations of public figures in the United States. Despite the limited number of studies, data exist concerning: 1) threatening letters and approaches to celebrities; 2) attacks and assassinations of public figures, usually the President of the United States; 3) threats and approaches to legislative members of state and federal governments; and 4) threats, approaches, and attacks against federal judicial officials. Similarities and differences across the various studies are discussed. Consistent findings across the studies indicate that direct threats toward the target are unusual and are often correlated negatively with an approach or attack; a significant proportion of subjects are mentally ill and have criminal histories; many subjects evidenced a downward spiral in their lives in the months or year before their approach or attack; and if an attack occurred, it was predatory (instrumental, premeditated) rather than affective (emotional, reactive), and the weapon of choice was a firearm, usually a handgun. Operational guidance and further research recommendations are made.

Stalkers and harassers of royalty: the role of mental illness and motivation

BACKGROUND Public figures are at increased risk of attracting unwanted attention in the form of intrusions, stalking and, occasionally, attack. Whereas the potential threat to the British Royal Family from terrorists and organized groups is clearly defined, there is a dearth of knowledge about that from individual harassers and stalkers. This paper reports findings from the first systematic study of this group. METHOD A retrospective study was conducted of a randomly selected stratified sample (n=275) of 8001 files compiled by the Metropolitan Police Services Royalty Protection Unit over 15 years on inappropriate communications or approaches to members of the British Royal Family. Cases were split into behavioural types. Evidence of major mental illness was recorded from the files. Cases were classified according to a motivational typology. An analysis was undertaken of associations between motivation, type of behaviour and mental illness. RESULTS Of the study sample, 83.6% were suffering from serious mental illness. Different forms of behaviour were associated with different patterns of symptomatology. Cases could be separated into eight motivational groups, which also showed significant differences in mental state. Marked differences in the intrusiveness of behaviour were found between motivational groups. CONCLUSIONS The high prevalence of mental illness indicates the relevance of psychiatric intervention. This would serve the health interests of psychotic individuals and alleviate protection concerns without the necessity of attempting large numbers of individual risk predictions. The finding that some motivations are more likely to drive intrusive behaviours than others may help focus both health and protection interventions.

The fixated and the pursuit of public figures

This paper considers the problem created by those who harbour unusually intense fixations on public figures. It examines the nature of such pathological fixations and how they differ from the wide range of normal concerns which lead people to communicate with, and even occasionally harass, politicians and other prominent persons. In those harbouring a pathological fixation, there often emerges a pattern of stalking-type behaviour, with repeated attempts at communication and/or contact which create concern. In a small number, the fixation either remains hidden or leads to attempts to communicate about, rather than to, the subject. Occasionally, such a fixation will come to attention with some dramatic approach, or even attack, on the individual with whom the fixated person has been preoccupied. Fixated people are of concern, not just because they create problems for public figures and their security systems, but because many are seriously mentally ill individuals in need of care, who in most cases cause harm only to their own lives and well-being.

The Fixated Threat Assessment Centre: preventing harm and facilitating care

The main risk of death or serious harm to public figures in western countries comes not from terrorists or criminals, but from the activities of lone individuals with intense pathological fixations, the majority of whom are mentally disordered. We report preliminary efficacy data from the Fixated Threat Assessment Centre (FTAC), the first joint police/National Health Service unit in the United Kingdom, which was set up to assess and manage such risks. One hundred consecutive cases assessed as being of moderate or high concern were examined. Eighty-six per cent suffered from psychotic illness. Following FTAC intervention, 57% were admitted to hospital by local psychiatric services, and 26% taken on by community psychiatric teams. Concern levels were reduced to low through FTAC interventions in 80% of cases. FTAC proved able to catalyse suitable health outcomes which both benefited the patients and reduced risk to public figures. The advantages of joint police-National Health Service units are discussed.

Persistence in stalking: a comparison of associations in general forensic and public figure samples

In stalking research, the risk domain of persistence concerns the likelihood that intrusive behaviours will continue towards the same target. This is a major source of anxiety to victims, and is of practical importance in the allocation of expensive protective resources. This study examines the associations of persistence in two different samples: a public figure sample concerning inappropriate communications and approaches to members of the British Royal Family, and a sample concerning similar behaviours in a general forensic population. Despite differences in methodology and definition, factors associated with persistence proved similar: psychotic illness, intimacy-seeking motivation and multiple or intrusive forms of communication. The results contribute to the emerging literature on the common ground between risk associations in general population and in public figure samples. They underline the prime importance of motivation and of mental health issues in assessing and managing risk. We recommend the adoption of a common conceptual framework in future research.

Factors Associated with Escalation and Problematic Approaches Toward Public Figures

Abstract:  Detailed comparison of factors associated with abnormal approach to the prominent and with escalation from communication to approach has not hitherto been undertaken. This partially reflects the failure of individual studies to adopt compatible terminologies. This study involves a careful dissection of six public figure studies, three involving U.S. politicians, two Hollywood celebrities, and one the British Royal Family. Common findings were unearthed across six headings. Approachers were significantly more likely to exhibit serious mental illness, engage in multiple means of communication, involve multiple contacts/targets, and to incorporate into their communication requests for help. They were significantly less likely to use threatening or antagonistic language in their communications, except in those cases involving security breaches. These results emphasize the importance of integrating mental health findings and preventive measures into risk management. Approach should not be regarded as a single behavioral category and has multiple motivations. Future studies should adopt standard terminology, preferably taken from the general stalking research.

Approach and escalation in stalking

Approach and escalation from communication to approach are important considerations in stalking, because intrusive behaviours cause victims distress, and approach is a pre-requisite for attack. This study reports the first detailed examination of these behaviours in a ‘general’ stalking sample, specifically a cohort of 211 cases referred to a specialist clinic. In non-ex-intimate stalkers, approach was associated with psychosis and intimacy seeking motivation. The same associations applied to escalation, only more strongly so. A comparison of approach-only cases with escalators showed that the former were significantly less likely to be intimacy seekers and more likely to have non-psychotic diagnoses and to assault. These results are striking similar to those in public figure samples. No associations with approach or escalation were found in ex-intimate cases. These results illustrate the importance of treating psychosis, the substantial overlap between risk factors in public figure and general population victims, and the importance of motivation in stalking risk assessment.

Bridging the gap in secure provision: Evaluation of a new local combined locked forensic/ intensive care unit

Abstract This study examines the first 15 months of a new 40-bedded local ‘hybrid’ mixed forensic and intensive care locked unit, set up to fill an identified gap between local intensive care and regional medium secure units. It examines the function of the unit in terms of patient profile, security and case selection and its admission rate and length of stay. Advantages and difficulties of such a model are considered. The results show that the unit deals successfully with both intensive care and offender patients, between which a considerable overlap is apparent. More than a third of the 255 admissions were on Part III orders. Remand orders constituted 22% of all admissions and 17% of admissions were admitted under a restriction order. In contrast to local locked wards, index offences included serious charges such as homicide, rape and attempted murder. Compared with regional secure units, there was more direct access to beds, a higher admission rate and shorter lengths of stay. It is argued that such un...