Michele Pathe

The prevalence and nature of stalking in the Australian community

Objective: This study examines the extent and nature of stalking victimisation in a random community sample. Method: A postal survey was distributed to 3700 adult men and women selected from the electoral roll in the State of Victoria. Outcome measures included the lifetime and annual cumulative incidence of stalking, the duration and methods of harassment, rates of associated violence and responses to victimisation. Results: Almost one in four respondents (23.4%;432) had been stalked, the unwanted behaviour they were subjected to being both repeated and fear-provoking. One in 10 (197) had experienced a protracted course of stalking involving multiple intrusions spanning a period of at least one month. Women were twice as likely as men to report having been stalked at some time in their lives, though the rates of victimisation in the 12 months prior to the study did not differ significantly according to gender. Younger people were significantly more likely than older respondents to report having been stalked. Victims were pursued by strangers in 42% of cases. The most common methods of harassment involved unwanted telephone calls, intrusive approaches and following. Associated threats (29%) and physical assaults (18%) frequently arose out of the stalking. Significant social and economic disruption was created by the stalking for 63% of victims. Most sought assistance to manage their predicament (69%). Conclusions: The experience of being stalked is common and appears to be increasing. Ten percent of people have been subjected at some time to an episode of protracted harassment. Assaults by stalkers are disturblingly frequent. Most victims report significant disruption to their daily functioning irrespective of exposure to associated violence.

Stalking and the pathologies of love.

Fourteen patients with pathologies of love (erotomania) are presented; all stalked the object of their disordered affections These cases were encountered in forensic practice and were personally assessed, and in most cases managed, by the authors. Victim impact reports or depositions made by the objects of these patients unwanted attentions were available. All patients indulged in stalking behaviours which included following, loitering in the victims vicinity, approaching, telephoning, and sending letters. The objects of the patients affections were threatened in five cases, violently assaulted in five – one fatally – and sexually attacked in seven cases. Those believed to stand in the way of their delusional love were also on occasion the victims of violence. This series is unusual in the degree of intrusiveness and overt violence, which probably reflects the forensic context in which the cases were encountered. The cases comprise a particular group of erotomanics who exhibit stalking and violent behaviour. The erotomanic syndromes often went unrecognised and the threat to the peace and safety of the objects of their affections was not always given proper weight. The clinical importance of this sub-group of stalkers is emphasised, as is their relevance in the legislative, and judicial, responses to stalking.

Editorial : when do repeated intrusions become stalking?

Stalking is a prevalent crime which can significantly compromise the victims quality of life. It occurs when one person repeatedly inflicts on another unwanted contacts or communications which induce fear. Many of the behaviours associated with stalking overlap with common, albeit irritating, experiences (e.g. being persistently telephoned or approached for a date). The difficulty for victims is recognizing the difference between brief episodes of intrusiveness or social awkwardness, and the beginnings of a more persistent campaign of harassment. This study sought to define empirically the foremost juncture at which instances of intrusiveness can be distinguished from persistent stalking which is ultimately damaging to the victims psychosocial functioning. The results indicate that continuation of unwanted intrusions beyond a threshold of 2 weeks is associated with a more intrusive, threatening and psychologically damaging course of harassment. Recognition that 2 weeks is the watershed between brief, self-limiting instances of intrusiveness and protracted stalking allows an opportunity for early intervention to assist victims of this crime.

A Research Review of Public Figure Threats, Approaches, Attacks, and Assassinations in the United States

The authors review extant research on threats, approaches, attacks, and assassinations of public figures in the United States. Despite the limited number of studies, data exist concerning: 1) threatening letters and approaches to celebrities; 2) attacks and assassinations of public figures, usually the President of the United States; 3) threats and approaches to legislative members of state and federal governments; and 4) threats, approaches, and attacks against federal judicial officials. Similarities and differences across the various studies are discussed. Consistent findings across the studies indicate that direct threats toward the target are unusual and are often correlated negatively with an approach or attack; a significant proportion of subjects are mentally ill and have criminal histories; many subjects evidenced a downward spiral in their lives in the months or year before their approach or attack; and if an attack occurred, it was predatory (instrumental, premeditated) rather than affective (emotional, reactive), and the weapon of choice was a firearm, usually a handgun. Operational guidance and further research recommendations are made.

The fixated and the pursuit of public figures

This paper considers the problem created by those who harbour unusually intense fixations on public figures. It examines the nature of such pathological fixations and how they differ from the wide range of normal concerns which lead people to communicate with, and even occasionally harass, politicians and other prominent persons. In those harbouring a pathological fixation, there often emerges a pattern of stalking-type behaviour, with repeated attempts at communication and/or contact which create concern. In a small number, the fixation either remains hidden or leads to attempts to communicate about, rather than to, the subject. Occasionally, such a fixation will come to attention with some dramatic approach, or even attack, on the individual with whom the fixated person has been preoccupied. Fixated people are of concern, not just because they create problems for public figures and their security systems, but because many are seriously mentally ill individuals in need of care, who in most cases cause harm only to their own lives and well-being.

Same-gender stalking.

Although stalkers most commonly target victims of the opposite gender, the results of larger and less selective studies suggest that same-gender stalking occurs with greater frequency than formerly thought. This study reviews the exiguous literature on same-gender stalking and presents the findings from a clinical study of 29 same-gender stalking cases that were referred to a forensic psychiatry center. The demographic characteristics, behavior, motivations, and psychopathology of same-gender stalkers are compared with a sample of 134 opposite-gender stalkers. The two groups were similar in many respects, with some discrepancies evident in the prior relationship between victim and stalker, harassment methods, and stalking motives. The impact of same-gender stalking on its victims is examined, and the implications of these findings are discussed.

Advances in stalking risk assessment

Over the past 15 years, forensic mental health has become more concerned with the concepts of violence prevention, management, and treatment. The development of specialist tools to aid in the assessment of a range of risks reflects this concern. This article explores contemporary thinking on violence risk assessment and how this knowledge can be applied to the relatively newer field of stalking risk assessment. The role of risk state and risk status are discussed, in addition to the way that standard structured professional judgment procedures need to be adapted to reflect the variety of risks present in stalking situations. The authors go on to describe the development and format of the Stalking Risk Profile, a set of structured professional judgment guidelines for assessing risk in stalkers. Suggestions are made for future research to enhance knowledge and improve practice in the field of stalking risk assessment.

Persistence in stalking: a comparison of associations in general forensic and public figure samples

In stalking research, the risk domain of persistence concerns the likelihood that intrusive behaviours will continue towards the same target. This is a major source of anxiety to victims, and is of practical importance in the allocation of expensive protective resources. This study examines the associations of persistence in two different samples: a public figure sample concerning inappropriate communications and approaches to members of the British Royal Family, and a sample concerning similar behaviours in a general forensic population. Despite differences in methodology and definition, factors associated with persistence proved similar: psychotic illness, intimacy-seeking motivation and multiple or intrusive forms of communication. The results contribute to the emerging literature on the common ground between risk associations in general population and in public figure samples. They underline the prime importance of motivation and of mental health issues in assessing and managing risk. We recommend the adoption of a common conceptual framework in future research.

Factors Associated with Escalation and Problematic Approaches Toward Public Figures

Abstract:  Detailed comparison of factors associated with abnormal approach to the prominent and with escalation from communication to approach has not hitherto been undertaken. This partially reflects the failure of individual studies to adopt compatible terminologies. This study involves a careful dissection of six public figure studies, three involving U.S. politicians, two Hollywood celebrities, and one the British Royal Family. Common findings were unearthed across six headings. Approachers were significantly more likely to exhibit serious mental illness, engage in multiple means of communication, involve multiple contacts/targets, and to incorporate into their communication requests for help. They were significantly less likely to use threatening or antagonistic language in their communications, except in those cases involving security breaches. These results emphasize the importance of integrating mental health findings and preventive measures into risk management. Approach should not be regarded as a single behavioral category and has multiple motivations. Future studies should adopt standard terminology, preferably taken from the general stalking research.

Harassment, stalking, threats and attacks targeting New Zealand politicians: A mental health issue

Objective: Due to the nature of their work, politicians are at greater risk of stalking, harassment and attack than the general population. The small, but significantly elevated risk of violence to politicians is predominantly due not to organised terrorism or politically motivated extremists but to fixated individuals with untreated serious mental disorders, usually psychosis. Our objective was to ascertain the frequency, nature and effects of unwanted harassment of politicians in New Zealand and the possible role of mental illness in this harassment. Methods: New Zealand Members of Parliament were surveyed, with an 84% response rate (n = 102). Quantitative and qualitative data were collected on Parliamentarians’ experiences of harassment and stalking. Results: Eighty-seven percent of politicians reported unwanted harassment ranging from disturbing communications to physical violence, with most experiencing harassment in multiple modalities and on multiple occasions. Cyberstalking and other forms of online harassment were common, and politicians felt they (and their families) had become more exposed as a result of the Internet. Half of MPs had been personally approached by their harassers, 48% had been directly threatened and 15% had been attacked. Some of these incidents were serious, involving weapons such as guns, Molotov cocktails and blunt instruments. One in three politicians had been targeted at their homes. Respondents believed the majority of those responsible for the harassment exhibited signs of mental illness. Conclusion: The harassment of politicians in New Zealand is common and concerning. Many of those responsible were thought to be mentally ill by their victims. This harassment has significant psychosocial costs for both the victim and the perpetrator and represents an opportunity for mental health intervention.