David W. McCamant

Structural Observation of the Primary Isomerization in Vision with Femtosecond-Stimulated Raman

The primary event that initiates vision is the light-induced 11-cis to all-trans isomerization of retinal in the visual pigment rhodopsin. Despite decades of study with the traditional tools of chemical reaction dynamics, both the timing and nature of the atomic motions that lead to photoproduct production remain unknown. We used femtosecond-stimulated Raman spectroscopy to obtain time-resolved vibrational spectra of the molecular structures formed along the reaction coordinate. The spectral evolution of the vibrational features from 200 femtoseconds to 1 picosecond after photon absorption reveals the temporal sequencing of the geometric changes in the retinal backbone that activate this receptor.

Two-dimensional femtosecond stimulated Raman spectroscopy: Observation of cascading Raman signals in acetonitrile

A new methodology for two-dimensional Raman spectroscopy-termed two-dimensional femtosecond stimulated Raman spectroscopy (2D-FSRS)-is presented and experimental results for acetonitrile are discussed. 2D-FSRS can potentially observe molecular anharmonicity by measuring the modulation of the frequency of a probed Raman mode, at frequency omega(hi), by the coherent motion of an impulsively driven mode, at frequency omega(low). In acetonitrile, the signal is generated by driving the CCN bend (379 cm(-1)) and CC stretch (920 cm(-1)) into coherence via impulsive stimulated Raman scattering and subsequently probing the stimulated Raman spectrum of the CC stretch, the CN stretch (2250 cm(-1)) and the CH stretch (2942 cm(-1)). The resultant signal can be generated by two alternative mechanisms: a fifth-order Raman process that would directly probe anharmonic coupling between the two modes, or a third-order cascade in which a third-order coherent Raman process produces a field that goes on to participate in a third-order stimulated Raman transition. The third-order cascade is shown to dominate the 2D-FSRS spectrum as determined by comparison with the predicted magnitude of the two signals, the 2D spectrum of a mixed isotope experiment, and the concentration dependence of the signal. In acetonitrile, theoretical calculations of the vibrational anharmonicity indicate that the third-order cascade signal should be 10(4) times larger than the fifth-order Raman signal. 2D-FSRS signals are observed between acetonitriles CCN bend, of E symmetry, and several different A(1) modes but are forbidden by symmetry in the fifth-order pathway. A 2D-FSRS spectrum of a 50:50 mixture of acetonitrile and d(3)-acetonitrile shows equivalent intensity for intramolecular coupling peaks and intermolecular coupling peaks, indicating that the observed signal cannot be probing molecular anharmonicity. Finally, the magnitudes of the 2D-FSRS peaks are observed to be proportional to the square of the number density, supporting the cascade mechanism.

Multimode Charge-Transfer Dynamics of 4-(Dimethylamino)benzonitrile Probed with Ultraviolet Femtosecond Stimulated Raman Spectroscopy

4-(Dimethylamino)benzonitrile (DMABN) has been one of the most studied photoinduced charge-transfer (CT) compounds for over 50 years, but due to the complexity of its excited electronic states and the importance of both intramolecular and solvent reorganization, the detailed microscopic mechanism of the CT is still debated. In this work, we have probed the ultrafast intramolecular CT process of DMABN in methanol using broad-band transient absorption spectroscopy from 280 to 620 nm and ultraviolet femtosecond stimulated Raman spectroscopy (FSRS) incorporating a 330 nm Raman pump pulse. Global analysis of the transient absorption kinetics revealed dynamics occurring with three distinct time constants: relaxation from the Franck-Condon L(a) state to the lower locally excited (LE) L(b) state in 0.3 ps, internal conversion in 2-2.4 ps that produces a vibrationally hot CT state, and vibrational relaxation within the CT state occurring in 6 ps. The 330 nm FSRS spectra established the dynamics along three vibrational coordinates: the ring-breathing stretch, ν(ph), at 764 cm(-1) in the CT state; the quinoidal C═C stretch, ν(CC), at 1582 cm(-1) in the CT state; and the nitrile stretch, ν(CN), at 2096 cm(-1) in the CT state. FSRS spectra collected with a 400 nm Raman pump probed the dynamics of the 1174 cm(-1) CH bending vibration, δ(CH). Spectral shifts of each of these modes occur on the 2-20 ps time scale and were analyzed in terms of the vibrational anharmonicity of the CT state, calculated using density functional theory. The frequencies of the δ(CH) and ν(CC) modes upshift with a 6-7 ps time constant, consistent with their off-diagonal anharmonic coupling to other modes that act as receiving modes during the CT process and then cool in 6-7 ps. It was found that the spectral down-shifts of the δ(CH) and ν(CN) modes are inconsistent with vibrational anharmonicity and are instead due to changes in molecular structure and hydrogen bonding that occur as the molecule relaxes within the CT state potential energy surface.

Theoretical analysis of anharmonic coupling and cascading Raman signals observed with femtosecond stimulated Raman spectroscopy

We present a classical theoretical treatment of a two-dimensional Raman spectroscopy based on the initiation of vibrational coherence with an impulsive Raman pump and subsequent probing by two-pulse femtosecond stimulated Raman spectroscopy (FSRS). The classical model offers an intuitive picture of the molecular dynamics initiated by each laser pulse and the generation of the signal field traveling along the probe wave vector. Previous reports have assigned the observed FSRS signals to anharmonic coupling between the impulsively driven vibration and the higher-frequency vibration observed with FSRS. However, we show that the observed signals are not due to anharmonic coupling, which is shown to be a fifth-order coherent Raman process, but instead due to cascades of coherent Raman signals. Specifically, the observed vibrational sidebands are generated by parallel cascades in which a coherent anti-Stokes or Stokes Raman spectroscopy (i.e., CARS or CSRS) field generated by the coherent coupling of the impulsive pump and the Raman pump pulses participates in a third-order FSRS transition. Additional sequential cascades are discussed that will give rise to cascade artifacts at the fundamental FSRS frequencies. It is shown that the intended fifth-order FSRS signals, generated by an anharmonic coupling mechanism, will produce signals of approximately 10(-4) DeltaOD (change in the optical density). The cascading signals, however, will produce stimulated Raman signal of approximately 10(-2) DeltaOD, as has been observed experimentally. Experiments probing deuterochloroform find significant sidebands of the CCl(3) bend, which has an E type symmetry, shifted from the A(1) type C-D and C-Cl stretching modes, despite the fact that third-order anharmonic coupling between these modes is forbidden by symmetry. Experiments probing a 50:50 mixture of chloroform and d-chloroform find equivalent intensity signals of low-frequency CDCl(3) modes as sidebands shifted from both the C-D stretch of CDCl(3) and the C-H stretch of CHCl(3). Such intermolecular sidebands are allowed in the cascade mechanism, but are expected to be extremely small in the fifth-order frequency modulation mechanism. Each of these observations indicates that the observed signals are due to cascading third-order Raman signals.

Re-evaluation of rhodopsin's relaxation kinetics determined from femtosecond stimulated Raman lineshapes.

This work presents a theoretical treatment of the vibrational line shape generated in a femtosecond stimulated Raman spectroscopy (FSRS) experiment under conditions in which the probed vibration undergoes a significant frequency shift during its free induction decay. This theory is applied to simulate the FSRS lineshapes previously observed in rhodopsin (Kukura et al. Science 2005, 310, 1006). The previously determined relaxation times for formation of the trans-photoproduct of rhodopsin were calculated using an incorrect equation for the time dependence of the observed frequency shifts. Here the data are reanalyzed by calculation of the corrected frequency sweep occurring during the vibrational free induction decay. It is shown that the calculated frequency shifts and general conclusions of the original work are sound but that the coherent vibrational frequency shifts of the C(10), C(11), and C(12) hydrogen-out-of-plane vibrations occur with a 140 fs time constant rather than the previously reported 325 fs time constant. This time constant provides an important constraint for models of the dynamics of the cis to trans isomerization process.

Probing the Charge Transfer Reaction Coordinate of 4-(Dimethylamino)benzonitrile with Femtosecond Stimulated Raman Spectroscopy†

Femtosecond stimulated Raman spectroscopy (FSRS) and femtosecond transient absorption have been used to probe the photoinduced charge transfer (CT) dynamics of 4-(dimethylamino)benzonitrile in methanol and n-hexane. Through a combined analysis of temporal changes in the Raman modes and transient absorption kinetics, a more complete picture of the reaction coordinate of the intramolecular charge transfer process has been established. FSRS spectra of the phenyl C═C stretching mode (Wilson mode 8a) at 1607 cm(-1), which shifts to 1581 cm(-1) in the CT state, and transient absorption measurements ranging from 360 to 700 nm support internal conversion from the locally excited to the charge transfer state in 4-5 ps and then a subsequent vibrational relaxation within the CT state manifold on a 6-8 ps time scale. Dramatic shifting and narrowing of the 1581 cm(-1) quinoidal C═C stretch (ν(8a)) on the ∼7 ps time scale indicates that the quinoidal distortion is an important probe of the CT reaction dynamics. The cause of the spectral shifts is determined by comparing the observed shifts in the vibrational spectrum to anharmonic couplings computed for the benzonitrile radical anion by density functional theory (DFT) and with quantitative theoretical models of the solvent induced vibrational peak shifts. The DFT calculations indicate that the 10 cm(-1) downshift of the C═C stretch is most likely attributable to significant vibrational excitation in nontotally symmetric modes that are strongly anharmonically coupled to the C═C stretch.

Spectroscopic Studies of Cryptophyte Light Harvesting Proteins: Vibrations and Coherent Oscillations

The first step of photosynthesis is the absorption of light by antenna complexes. Recent studies of light-harvesting complexes using two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy have revealed interesting coherent oscillations. Some contributions to those coherences are assigned to electronic coherence and therefore have implications for theories of energy transfer. To assign these femtosecond data and to gain insight into the interplay among electronic and vibrational resonances, we need detailed information on vibrations and coherences in the excited electronic state compared to the ground electronic state. Here, we used broad-band transient absorption and femtosecond stimulated Raman spectroscopies to record ground- and excited-state coherences in four related photosynthetic proteins: PC577 from Hemiselmis pacifica CCMP706, PC612 from Hemiselmis virescens CCAC 1635 B, PC630 from Chroomonas CCAC 1627 B (marine), and PC645 from Chroomonas mesostigmatica CCMP269. Two of those proteins (PC630 and PC645) have strong electronic coupling while the other two proteins (PC577 and PC612) have weak electronic coupling between the chromophores. We report vibrational spectra for the ground and excited electronic states of these complexes as well as an analysis of coherent oscillations observed in the broad-band transient absorption data.

From seconds to femtoseconds: solar hydrogen production and transient absorption of chalcogenorhodamine dyes.

A series of chalcogenorhodamine dyes with oxygen, sulfur, and selenium atoms in the xanthylium core was synthesized and used as chromophores for solar hydrogen production with a platinized TiO2 catalyst. Solutions containing the selenorhodamine dye generate more hydrogen [181 turnover numbers (TONs) with respect to chromophore] than its sulfur (30 TONs) and oxygen (20 TONs) counterparts. This differs from previous work incorporating these dyes into dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), where the oxygen- and selenium-containing species perform similarly. Ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy revealed an ultrafast electron transfer under conditions for dye-sensitized solar cells and a slower electron transfer under conditions for hydrogen production, making the chromophores triplet yield an important parameter. The selenium-containing species is the only dye for which triplet state population is significant, which explains its superior activity in hydrogen evolution. The discrepancy in rates of electron transfer appears to be caused by the presence or absence of aggregation in the system, altering the coupling between the dye and TiO2. This finding demonstrates the importance of understanding the differences between, as well as the effects of the conditions for DSSCs and solar hydrogen production.

Light-driven generation of hydrogen: New chromophore dyads for increased activity based on Bodipy dye and Pt(diimine)(dithiolate) complexes

Significance The light-driven generation of H2, the reductive side of water splitting, requires a light absorber or photosensitizer (PS) for electron-hole creation and photoinduced electron transfer. To increase the effectiveness of charge transfer chromophores as PSs, this report describes the attachment of a strongly absorbing organic dye (dipyrromethene-BF2, commonly known as Bodipy) to Pt diimine dithiolate charge transfer chromophores and examination of systems containing these dyads for the light-driven generation of H2. The use of these dyads increases system activity under green light irradiation (530 nm) relative to systems with either chromophore alone, validating such an approach in designing artificial photosynthetic systems. One dyad system exhibits both high activity and substantial durability (40,000 turnovers relative to PSs over 12 d). New dyads consisting of a strongly absorbing Bodipy (dipyrromethene-BF2) dye and a platinum diimine dithiolate (PtN2S2) charge transfer (CT) chromophore have been synthesized and studied in the context of the light-driven generation of H2 from aqueous protons. In these dyads, the Bodipy dye is bonded directly to the benzenedithiolate ligand of the PtN2S2 CT chromophore. Each of the new dyads contains either a bipyridine (bpy) or phenanthroline (phen) diimine with an attached functional group that is used for binding directly to TiO2 nanoparticles, allowing rapid electron photoinjection into the semiconductor. The absorption spectra and cyclic voltammograms of the dyads show that the spectroscopic and electrochemical properties of the dyads are the sum of the individual chromophores (Bodipy and the PtN2S2 moieties), indicating little electronic coupling between them. Connection to TiO2 nanoparticles is carried out by sonication leading to in situ attachment to TiO2 without prior hydrolysis of the ester linking groups to acids. For H2 generation studies, the TiO2 particles are platinized (Pt-TiO2) so that the light absorber (the dyad), the electron conduit (TiO2), and the catalyst (attached colloidal Pt) are fully integrated. It is found that upon 530 nm irradiation in a H2O solution (pH 4) with ascorbic acid as an electron donor, the dyad linked to Pt-TiO2 via a phosphonate or carboxylate attachment shows excellent light-driven H2 production with substantial longevity, in which one particular dyad [4(bpyP)] exhibits the highest activity, generating ∼40,000 turnover numbers of H2 over 12 d (with respect to dye).

Femtosecond Stimulated Raman Spectroscopy Using a Scanning Multichannel Technique

A scanning multichannel technique (SMT) has been implemented in femtosecond stimulated Raman spectroscopy (FSRS). By combining several FSRS spectra detected at slightly different positions of the spectrograph via SMT, we have eliminated the systematic noise patterns (“fixed pattern noise”) due to the variation in sensitivity and noise characteristics of the individual charge-coupled device (CCD) pixels. In nonresonant FSRS, solvent subtraction can effectively remove the systematic noise pattern even without SMT. However, in the case of resonant FSRS, we show that a similar solvent subtraction procedure is ineffective at removing the noise patterns without SMT. Application of SMT results in averaged FSRS spectra with improved signal-to-noise ratios that approach the shot-noise limit.