Dawn T. Robinson

Selective interaction as a strategy for identity maintenance : an affect control model

In this paper we answer the question : Do people select interaction partners to enhance their self-image, or do they strive to maintain a stable view of self ? Affect control theory, a quantified version of symbolic interactionism, predicts that individuals adopt strategies which maintain their identities in order to secure a stable definition of the situation. When individuals have low self-esteem, they select interactions that maintain this low self-esteem, even when these interactions cause negative emotions. Two experiments examined the cognitive, affective, and behavioral effects of identity-confirming and -disconfirming information. Study 1, which assessed the cognitive and emotional outcomes of identity-relevant feedback, revealed that people with both high and low self-esteem fell good when praised and bad when they receive negative feedback on their performance. People with low self-esteem, however, think that the criticism is accurate, and like the critic more than do people with high self-esteem

Affect Control Theory

When David Heise (1977,1979) published his early statements of affect control theory, contribut-ing to the newly developing sociology of emotion was not his primary goal. The main objective of the theory was to explain behavior in the context of social interactions. Heise hoped to develop a formal framework that could describe both the routine, expected role behaviors that people enact under normal circumstances and the creative responses they generate when encountering noninstitutionalized or counternormative situations. He combined insights from a measurement tradition in psycholinguistics (Osgood 1962, 1966; Osgood et al. 1973, 1975), empirical studies of impression formation (Gollob 1968; Gollob and Rossman 1973; Heise 1969, 1970), and a cybernetic model of perception (Powers 1973) to create his new theory of social action.

Gender and Conversational Dynamics

Much of what is important in social life is accomplished through talk. Through conversation, we form acquaintances, request and receive services, conduct business, and negotiate family affairs. In such situations, language use creates a social identity. Conversational styles that reflect our group membership and social position serve to maintain those identities in social interaction. They represent the micro-level mechanisms through which structural-level inequality and differentiation are accomplished in everyday interaction. On the other hand, conversational patterns that contrast with those that are expected from group members may be the mechanisms for social mobility (e.g., leadership acquisition or loss). Therefore, language use and conversational style may reinforce a sense of stereotype, or can alleviate stereotypic beliefs (Jupp, Roberts, & Cook-Gumpertz, 1982, p. 234).

EMOTION DISPLAY AS A STRATEGY FOR IDENTITY NEGOTIATION

Affect control theory provides a formal model of emotions, behavior, and identity shifts during social interaction. According to the theory, emotions provide information about both the identity of an emoting actor and how well current social events are confirming that identity. Actors can avoid or mitigate identity damage resulting from inappropriate behaviors by displaying certain emotions (e.g. remorse). Alternately, actors can expose their identities to social damage by displaying inappropriate affect while behaving otherwise normatively. Here we present experimental tests of eight hypotheses based on affect control-based simulations. We find that (1) display of emotions that are affectively congruent with behaviors can reduce damage to identity from harmful behaviors; (2) display of evaluatively incongruent emotions can actually contribute to a spoiled identity, even in the context of socially positive behaviors; and (3) emotions that are evaluatively congruent with behaviors make actors seem more powerful. Respondents feel that they understand and like actors more when they display normative, affectively congruent emotions. These results are complicated somewhat by responses to the emotion of anger. One hypothesis—that low potency emotions will make actors seem more powerful—is not confirmed. We interpret these results and suggest avenues for future research.

Density, transitivity, and diffuse status in task-oriented groups

Small-group researchers recently have been concerned with how diffuse status characteristics such as race and gender combine with verbal and nonverbal cues to structure relations in task groups. In this paper we investigate the structure of precedence relations in such groups, including whether these relations are dense, whether they are transitive, and whether they are structured in any obvious way by diffuse status characteristics. Using transcript data on six-person mixed-gender discussion groups, we found relational density in about 55 percent of the dyads, transitivity in about 75 percent of the completed triads, and no clear pattern by gender. Each of these findings is contrary to assumptions contained in a formal participation model by Fisek, Berger, and Norman for which these authors reported strong empirical support. To investigate this apparent contradiction, we designed and carried out Monte Carlo simulations, creating simulated data with a known underlying structure, and applying Fisek et al.s research methodology to our simulated evidence. Although the simulated data, by design, systematically violate Fisek et al.s density and diffuse status assumptions, their model actually fits these data better than it fits the empirical Smith-Lovin data. We discuss both theoretical and methodological implications of our empirical and Monte Carlo results.

Infrared Thermography as a Measure of Emotion Response

An ongoing challenge facing emotion researchers is finding appropriate measurement tools. Many of our theories focus on emotion in the context of dynamic interaction, yet many of our most relied-upon measures either interrupt or alter interaction. New research suggests that infrared thermography may be useful as a nonintrusive way to measure emotion. Here we discuss the viability of thermography for studying emotion response and advancing emotion theory.

Selective identity preferences: Choosing from among alternative occupational identities

Affect control theory describes a process in which individuals work to maintain existing situated identities. In this paper, we extend affect control theory to explain selective identity preferences in occupational settings. We argue that individuals form preferences about potential future identities with an eye to maintaining consistency between their potential experiences and their existing biographical identities. In particular, we suggest that occupational identity preferences reflect work-specific biographical identities called worker identities. We then predict that individuals who are seeking alternative or additional occupational identities will prefer those that evoke sentiments that are similar to those evoked by their worker identities. We find that current worker sentiments predict reports of desired and undesired future occupational identities, to include generalized military identities, to a remarkable degree. We discuss the implications for research on occupational mobility, work, and life course, as well as for existing identity theories.

PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES OF THEORETICAL CONCEPTS: SOME IDEAS FOR LINKING DEFLECTION AND EMOTION TO PHYSICAL RESPONSES DURING INTERACTION

After a vigorous debate in the late 1970s, the sociology of emotion put aside most discussion of whether or not the physiological arousal associated with emotion labels is differentiated. Since this early period, scholars have made great progress on two fronts. First, theories about the interrelationship of identity, action and emotion have specified a family of new concepts related to emotion. Second, a large corpus of research on the physiological correlates of emotional experience emerged. In this chapter, we review the well-developed control theories of identity and emotion, and focus on the key concepts that might relate to different physiological states. We then review the general classes of physiological measures, discussing their reliability, intrusiveness and other features that might determine their usefulness for tracking responses to social interaction. We then offer a highly provisional mapping of physiological measures onto the concepts that they might potentially measure, given past research about how these physiological processes relate to environmental stimuli. While any linkage between concepts and measures must be speculative at this point, we hope that this review will serve as a stimulus to theoretically guided research that begins to assess the validity of these new measures for sociological use.

Toward an Unobtrusive Measure of Emotion During Interaction: Thermal Imaging Techniques

Purpose – This paper proposes a new procedure for measuring affective responses during social interaction using facial thermographic imaging. Methodology – We first describe the results of several small pilot experiments designed to develop and refine this new measure that reveal some of the methodological advantages and challenges offered by this measurement approach. We then demonstrate the potential utility of this measure using data from a laboratory experiment (N=114) in which we used performance feedback to manipulate identity deflection and measured several types of affective responses – including self-impressions and emotions. Findings – We find warming of the brow (near the corrugator muscle) and cheek (near the zygomatic major muscle) related most strongly to emotion valence and self-potency, with those whose brows and cheeks warmed the most feeling less positive emotion and less potent self-impressions. Warming in the eye area (near the orbicularis oculi) related most closely to undirected identity deflection and to positive self-sentiments. Positive self-views and strong identity disruptions both contributed to warming of the eyes. Implications – The rigor of contemporary sociological theories of emotion exceeds our current ability to empirically test these theories. Facial thermographic imaging may offer sociologists new assessments of affect and emotion that are ecologically valid, socially unreactive, temporally sensitive, and accurate. This could dramatically improve our ability to test and develop affect based theories of social interaction.

Back to the Future: 25 Years of Research in Affect Control Theory

Abstract Purpose To provide a comprehensive review of theoretical and research advances in affect control theory from 1988 to 2013 for academic and student researchers in social psychology. Design/Methodology/Approach Against the background of a concise history of affect control theory from its beginnings in the 1960s to its maturation in the late 1980s, a comprehensive review of research and publications in the last 25 years is reported in five sections: Theoretical Advances (e.g., self and institutions, nonverbal behavior, neuroscience, artificial intelligence); Technological Advances (e.g., electronic data collection, computer simulations, cultural surveys, equation refinement, small groups analysis); Cross-Cultural Research (archived data and published analyses); Empirical Tests of the Theory; and Substantive Applications (e.g., emotions, social and cultural change, occupations/work, politics, gender/ideology/subcultures, deviance, criminology, stereotyping, physiological behavior). Findings Reveals an impressive number of publications in this area, including over 120 articles and chapters and four major books, and a great deal of cross-cultural research, including European, Asian, and Middle-Asian cultures. Research Limitation/Implications (if applicable) Because of limitations of space, the review does not cover the large number of theses, dissertations, and research reports. Originality/Value No other review of affect control theory with this scope and detail exists.