Deborah A. Salem

Organizational characteristics of empowering community settings: A multiple case study approach

Although empowerment is often cited as a major guiding construct for community psychology, relatively little is known about the characteristics of empowering community settings. The current paper uses a multiple case study methodology to generate a number of key organizational characteristics of empowering community settings to guide future work in the area. In-depth, multilevel, longitudinal research was conducted on three empowering community settings: a religious fellowship, a mutual help organization for persons with severe mental illness, and an educational program for African American students. The organizational features found to characterize all three settings were (a) a belief system that inspires growth is strengths-based, and is focused beyond the self; (b) an opportunity role structure that is pervasive, highly accessible, and multifunctional (c) a support system that is encompassing, peer-based, and provides a sense of community; and (d) leadership that is inspiring, talented, shared, and committed to both setting and members. Limitations of the research are discussed, and directions for future research suggested.

MUTUAL HELP GOES ON-LINE

■This study investigated an on-line mutual-help group for persons suffering from depression. Postings from two randomly chosen weeks were content coded (N 5 1,863 postings; 533 participants; 273 males, 173 females) based on concepts salient to face-to-face mutual-help groups. Participants in the on-line group communicated in ways characteristic of face-to-face groups (e.g., high levels of support, acceptance, and positive feelings); however, they engaged in more emotional support and self-disclosure. Unexpectedly, the group was more highly used by men than by women. In addition, the content of men’s posts were virtually identical to those of women’s. On-line mutual help may provide a unique form of support for persons who are not as likely to use traditional forms of helping.

Facilitating Interorganizational Collaboration: The Contributions of Interorganizational Alliances

In an attempt to promote service delivery integration and improve interorganizational collaboration, many recent human service delivery initiatives have included the development of interorganizational alliances such as coalitions and coordinating councils. Despite their popularity, little is known about how these alliances influence interorganizational collaboration, specifically the extent to which they alter the interactions among human service delivery organizations. The present study examined the interorganizational interactions, specifically the exchange relationships, within one county that was implementing two interorganizational alliances—a countywide coordinating council and interagency service delivery teams. Membership on both alliances was associated with broader interorganizational exchange networks. Organizations involved in a coordinating council were more likely to be included in client, information, and resource exchanges, and participate in joint ventures with a broader range of organizations. Providers involved in interagency teams also exchanged clients and information with a broader sector of service delivery organizations than nonparticipating providers. Observational data suggested that both alliances created structures and processes intended to facilitate interorganizational exchanges. Together, these results suggest that the development of opportunities for and encouragement of staff and leader involvement in these types of alliances may be an important part of our attempt to create a more integrated social service delivery system. The implications of these findings for researchers and practitioners are discussed.

Expansion strategies of a mutual help organization.

Described a study of the expansion strategies of a successful self- and mutual help organization for persons with mental illness. Resource mobilization and behavior-setting theories were used as conceptual frameworks to guide the investigation. Collaborative methods and a grounded theory approach were used. Archives, reports of contacts outside of the organization, and naturalistic observations were data sources. Of particular interest are the processes used by the organization to mobilize internal and external resources and to start new mutual help groups. Results suggest that the organization mobilizes resources from a variety of sources, displays flexibility in securing resources and defining organizational roles, and creates underpopulated settings to encourage individual involvement. The strategies appear to avoid overtaxing resource pools, reduce role ambiguity, and encourage pluralistic participation. Discussion includes several potential explanations for the successful growth of the organization.

Concept Mapping as a Feminist Research Method Examining the Community Response to Rape

A method used in program evaluation and public health research called concept mapping is examined in this article for its usefulness in feminist research. This method embodies several defining characteristics of feminist social science. Concept mapping is a single method that integrates qualitative and quantitative approaches, provides an opportunity for participants to work together as a group to develop an understanding of a concept, and places the participants in control of interpretation. Over the course of a six-step process, a group of people are assembled to discuss an issue or concept, moving toward a group understanding of that concept, which is then represented in a visual picture, or map. Concept mapping was used in the current study to examine how community resources for sexual-assault victims could be improved. A national random sample of 168 rape-victim advocates provided ideas as to how the legal, medical, and mental health systems could better serve victims. A subgroup of advocates then constructed and interpreted a concept map. The map suggested that rape victims still face many problems in seeking community help. Twelve clusters of broad-based and specific system changes were identified (e.g., fighting victim blaming, community education, sensitizing medical staff, legal reform). Implications for research on sexual assault and feminist research methodology are discussed.

Risk Revisited: The Perception of HIV Risk in a Community Sample of Low-Income African American Women

Despite the high rate of HIV infection among low-income African American women, research suggests that perceptions of HIV risk among this population are not elevated compared to other groups. It is evident that an individual’s subjective perception of risk is based on a multiplicity of both internal and external factors, including relationship context and cultural worldview. This study examines the contribution of cultural worldview to low-income African American women’s HIV risk perception. A hierarchical linear regression was conducted on a community sample of low-income African American women (N = 196). Results demonstrate that when partner infidelity was controlled, financial independence and interpersonal control were significant predictors of perceived HIV risk, with lack of power related to elevated levels of perceived risk. When relationship power and HIV knowledge were taken into account, cultural worldview was a significant negative predictor of perceived risk, with high levels of fatalism associated with low perceived risk. Findings suggest that knowledge alone is not enough to explain HIV risk perception. The role of cultural worldview must be taken into account.

The Effect of Professional Partnership on the Development of a Mutual-help Organization

The effects of partnership between Schizophrenics Anonymous (SA, a mutual-help organization) and the Mental Health Association in Michigan (MHAM, a professionally staffed advocacy organization) on SA’s growth and development were explored. Following the initiation of a formal partnership, SA groups were more available throughout the state, more likely to be associated with formal mental health settings, and less likely to have leaders who had been participants in other SA groups. Groups with consumer leaders had significantly greater longevity than groups with professional leaders. Changes in the organizational structure and process of SA were also identified. SA leaders reported that SA moved from a collective to a more bureaucratic structure. As a result, there was greater consistency, administrative capacity, and response capacity. This enhanced capacity came with costs reported by SA leaders. The leadership role of SA members became less defined. SA members expressed concerns about the more hierarchical structure of SA’s organization, decreased consumer control, increased professional involvement in SA, and an excessive focus on group development as opposed to group maintenance. Mental Health Association in Michigan staff reported that MHAM was also impacted by the partnership, both with regard to internal functioning and external perception. Implications for effective partnerships between mutual-help and professional organizations are discussed.

The adoption of innovation in collective action organizations

This study used a quantitative/qualitative methodology to explore how collective action organizations (CAOs) remain open to organizational change and innovation. It examined the adoption of inclusion—a recent innovation in the field of disabilities—by local chapters of The Arc Michigan (a disabilities CAO). We found considerable variability in the adoption of inclusion by local Arc chapters. This variability was significantly related to the ecology surrounding these chapters. Local Arc chapters that had adopted an inclusion philosophy had significantly different internal and external environments from those that had not adopted inclusion. Our qualitative findings make it clear, however, that innovative Arc chapters were not the passive recipients of these internal and external influences. These chapters were proactive players in defining and shaping the nature of their internal and external environments. Strategies that were related to a chapters ability to remain open to innovation included (a) a change orientation, (b) a conscious philosophy or vision, (c) a proactive strategy for achieving chapter goals and overcoming barriers to change, (d) the creation of a supportive organizational network, and (e) avoidance of resource dependencies that required them to engage in activities that were inconsistent with the innovation. These findings provide a framework by which CAOs can maintain an openness to innovation and remain on the forefront of social change.

Helping Mutual Help: Managing the Risks of Professional Partnerships

This chapter addresses the recent trend for mutual-help organizations to form collaborative partnerships with professionally run organizations. The focus of the discussion is a multi-method case study of a partnership between Schizophrenics Anonymous (SA) and the Mental Health Association of Michigan (MHAM) over a 14-year period. This study explores how the evolution of a formal partnership between SA and MHAM influenced the organizational expansion and development of SA. The partnership resulted in increased access to SA groups throughout Michigan. It also resulted in changes in how new SA groups were started, with more new groups in traditional mental health service settings and more groups led by professionals. New groups established with professional leaders had significantly lower survival rates than new groups established with consumer leaders. Qualitative analyses of interviews with SA’s consumer leaders suggested that, while SA became a more stable organization, there was an accompanying loss of consumer leadership opportunities, ownership, and control over organizational functions. These results are discussed with regard to the lessons learned for managing mutual-help/professional partnerships. We draw on organizational theories and risk management principles to discuss strategies by which mutual-help organizations can benefit from partnerships with other types of organizations, while minimizing unintended changes to their basic beliefs, processes, and structures.

Book Reviews : Self-Help in America: A Social Movement Perspective, A. H. Katz, New York, Twayne Publishers, 1993, 128 pp:

Health education and resource development is the focal point of the fourth section, which contains four chapters. In the first chapter, the author presents theories of health education, but foremost underscores the importance of developing health education messages that consider the historical and current psychosocial dynamics of the African American experience. In reviewing the implementation of health education programs in African American communities, the second chapter emphasizes the importance of having indigenous community health care workers whose economic, social, and cultural characteristics are homogeneous with the target population. Similarly, the third chapter discusses the importance of understanding cultural beliefs and how they can be used to facilitate the success of health education programs in African American communities. The last chapter covers strategies for increasing the number of African Americans who work as health care providers. The final section is perhaps the most thought provoking in its focus on the future of health for African Americans. The four chapters in this section cover health policy issues as well as conceptual approaches to enhance the health status of African Americans. Among health policies discussed are those supporting reproductive rights and removing access barriers to health care. Also, there is discussion focusing on community organization and development as an approach when engaging African American communities in health education and health promotion programming. The last chapter in this section culminates with a framework for social action. In summary, Health Issues in the Black Community provides a much needed resource for health educators, other public health professionals, and health policymakers. The book is especially helpful for training health educators and health care professionals who work in African American communities. Not only does the book offer a comprehensive review of relevant health issues, but it also provides sociocultural models for developing efficacious health education and health promotion efforts.