Deborah L. Best

Preschool Racial Attitude Measure II

The earlier version of the Preschool Racial Attitude Measure (PRAM I) has been found to be a useful measure in attitude development and modification studies of young children. This paper describes the lengthened and otherwise revised version of this procedure—PRAM II. Standardization data are reported for 252 Caucasian and 140 Negro children, ranging in age from 37 to 85 months (mean = 64 months), who were tested by Caucasian and Negro examiners. Analyses of the racial attitude scores revealed that the measure had good internal consistency (r = .80), and satisfactory test-retest reliability (r = .55, over a one-year interval). It was demonstrated that the test may be divided into two equivalent short-forms, for test-retest purposes. Other findings were that the racial attitude scores were found to vary systematically with race of subject, but not with sex of subject, IQ, or age. Evidence regarding race of examiner effects was inconclusive. It was concluded that PRAM II provides a reliable index of racial attitudes, and that the same rationale could be employed in the assessment of other attitudes at the preschool level. Theories of racial attitude development are discussed.

Development of Sex-Trait Stereotypes Among Young Children in the United States, England, and Ireland.

The Sex Stereotype Measure II (SSM II), a 32-item revision of the Williams, Bennett, and Best Sex Stereotype Measure, was developed to assess childrens knowledge of conventional, sex-trait stereotypes defined by American university students. The procedure employed brief stories and human figure silhouettes which were individually administered to 5- and 8-year-old children in the United States, England, and Ireland and group administered to 11-year-olds in the United States. In the United States, knowledge of sex-trait stereotypes was found to develop in a linear fashion between the ages of 5 and 11, with more male traits than female traits being known at each age level. Cross-nationally, there was a high degree of similarity in the nature of the sex stereotypes being learned by the children in the 3 countries, although the rate of learning appeared slower among the Irish children. In all countries there was a clear progression in sex-stereotype learning from age 5 to age 8. English boys had greater knowledge of stereotypes than English girls, but this was not true in Ireland and the United States. Generally, knowledge of male stereotype traits appeared to develop earlier while knowledge of the female traits increased more rapidly between ages 5 and 8. The similarity in sex-stereotype learning in the 3 countries is discussed, and studies in progress in other countries of greater cultural diversity are noted.

Pancultural Gender Stereotypes Revisited: The Five Factor Model

Williams and Bests (1982, 1990a) cross-culturalgender stereotype data from 25 countries, previouslyanalyzed in terms of affective meanings, ego states, andpsychological needs, were re-analyzed in terms of the Five Factor Model (FFM) of personality.In each country, participants were approximately 100university students, equally divided by gender. Withresults averaged across all countries, it was found that the pancultural male stereotype was higherthan the pancultural female stereotype on Extraversion,Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness toExperience while the pancultural female stereotype was higher on Agreeableness. Re-analysis of thestereotype data from Japan and Pakistan, which had beenfound relatively atypical in previous analyses, revealedFFM profiles generally similar to the pancultural profiles. The evaluative nature of each factoris discussed and related to the stereotypes associalization models.

A further analysis of the affective meanings associated with male and female sex-trait stereotypes

This study was concerned with the qualitative differences in the male and female sex-trait stereotypes. Previous research employing the item pool of the Adjective Check List (ACL) had indicated no relationship between the stereotype loading of the adjectives and their “favorability” ratings. In the present study, university students rated the ACL items for “strength” and “activity,” and these ratings were used to demonstrate that the male stereotype was appreciably stronger and more active than the female stereotype. It was found that the strength ratings were highly correlated with both activity and favorability ratings which were, themselves, unrelated. It was concluded that the principal qualitative difference between the stereotypes lay in the connotations of activity and passivity associated, respectively, with the male and female stereotype traits, and that any assertion of greater “social desirability” for the male stereotype was based on its greater “activity” and not, as is often supposed, on its greater “favorability.”

Parent-Child Interactions in France, Germany, and Italy The Effects of Gender and Culture

Previous research has demonstrated that mothers and fathers interact differently with their children and these interactions have important consequences for childrens social development. The present study examines gender differences in parent-child interactions and the similarity of these patterns in France, Germany, and Italy. Samples in these countries were used because within Western societies they represent differing cultural expectations concerning the behavior of men and women. Parent-child dyads interacting on playgrounds were observed for affection, play, vocalization, showing and sharing, aggression, discipline, caregiving, soothing, and controlling behaviors. Gender and country differences were found. French and Italian fathers engaged in more play than mothers, but the opposite was found in Germany. French children showed and shared more than did the other children. Overall, French and Italian parents and children were more interactive than were German dyads. Although gender generally influences parent and child behaviors, culture modifies the way that these differences are displayed.

Sex-Trait Stereotypes in France, Germany, and Norway:

Previous studies in the United States, England, and Ireland had demonstrated a high degree of cross-national generality in sex-trait stereotypes, i.e., the psychological traits which are differentially ascribed to men and women (e.g., men are aggressive, women are emotional, and the like). The present article reports on similar studies conducted with university student subjects in France, Germany, and Norway who were given translated versions of the Gough-Heilbrun Adjective Check List and were asked to report on those traits which were more frequently associated with men, with women, or with neither, in their respective countries. The results indicated a high degree of similarity in the findings of the three new continental groups and the three previous English-speaking groups. Although there were some apparent minor differences among countries, the results were sufficiently similar to permit the hypothesis that there are common sex-trait stereotypes which exist in all Western countries and, perhaps, even in countries of greater cultural diversity.

Ukrainian and U.S. American Females Differences in Individualism/Collectivism and Gender Attitudes

Individualism/collectivism, gender attitudes, and the relationship between these constructs were measured among Ukrainian and U.S. American women. Contrary to expectation, Ukrainians were more individualistic than U.S. Americans. As predicted, Ukrainians held more traditional gender attitudes than U.S. Americans. Although correlations between individualism/collectivism and gender attitudes were not statistically significant, there was a tendency for individualism to be associated with liberal gender attitudes among U.S. women. Findings were discussed in light of sociopolitical and economic changes in Ukraine.

Testicular cancer. Adolescent knowledge and attitudes.

To study what adolescents know or feel about testicular cancer (TC), 1,364 males, mean age 14.9 years, were given an 85-item pretest questionnaire. Although 28% had heard of TC, none knew how to perform a testicular self-examination (TSE). Analysis of the attitude questions showed that adolescents are afraid of getting TC, are unsure about whether it can be self-diagnosed, and do not know whether recovery is more likely with early diagnosis. Black adolescents were less knowledgeable about and more afraid of getting TC than white adolescents; males of lower socioeconomic status (SES) and males with more contact with cancer were also more afraid of getting TC than higher SES and low-cancer contact groups. Although 75% reported having a complete physical examination by a physician within the previous 15 months, less than 2% reported being taught TSE. Having had a recent physical examination made no difference in the knowledge of or attitudes toward TC.

The influence of sex-role orientation on ratings of perceived exertion

Previous research has shown that feminine-typed women have an aversion to strenuous physical activity and when engaging in cross-sex behavior may experience psychological distress. Given the growing interest in aerobic exercise, the present study was designed to test whether sex-role orientation mediated the report of physical exertion. Subjects were 33 college-aged women selected from three categories: masculine, feminine, and androgynous. Procedures required that each subject complete two one-hour testing sessions. The first session was employed to collect anthropometric data and to evaluate maximum aerobic capacity, while the second session consisted of subjects completing a preperformance affect scale and subsequently running for 30 minutes at a preestablished work intensity. Results revealed that those who were feminine-typed gave significantly higher exertional ratings than either the masculine or androgynous women. The fact that the feminine group was less positive about the task suggests that the observed perceptual differences may have been due to affective schemata which have been hypothesized to mediate the perception of pain.

Color Bias among Young Japanese Children

Previous studies of preschool children in the United States and Western Europe had demonstrated a bias favoring the color white relative to the color black, and a bias favoring light-skinned human figures. In this study, procedures used in previous studies were translated and administered to Japanese preschoolers, aged 40 to 73 months. Both types of bias were found among the Japanese children indicating that pro-white and pro-light-skinned biases are not confined to Western groups. An interesting difference was the indication that the biases were more highly correlated with age among Japanese children and, hence, seemed more likely to be attributable to cultural learning.