Peter A. Ornstein

Mother – Child Conversational Interactions as Events Unfold: Linkages to Subsequent Remembering

The study reported here was designed to examine linkages between mother-child conversational interactions during events and childrens subsequent recall of these activities. In this longitudinal investigation, 21 mother-child dyads were observed while they engaged in specially constructed activities when the children were 30, 36, and 42 months of age. Analyses of the childrens 1-day and 3-week recall of these events indicated that at all age points, features of the activities that were jointly handled and jointly discussed by the mother and child were better remembered than were features that were either (1) jointly handled and talked about only by the mother, or (2) jointly handled and not discussed. Potential linkages were also explored between incidental memory for personal experiences and deliberate recall of familiar but arbitrary materials. In this regard, childrens recall of the special activities was positively correlated with their recall of objects in a deliberate memory task performed at 42 months.

Effects of the Knowledge Base on Children's Memory Strategies

In this article, the importance of examining the linkage between knowledge and strategic factors in childrens memory has been suggested. Indeed, it has been argued that a more complete analysis of the development of remembering in children requires a consideration of the operation of memory strategies in the context of the growing knowledge base. The effects of the knowledge base were analyzed in terms of concurrent influences on the use of strategies and long-term consequences for the development of increasingly skilled memory processing. The available evidence suggests that age-related changes in the contents of the knowledge system, as well as increases in the ease with which information can be accessed, contribute to the strategies that are used by children of different ages, and influence the development of efficient modes of processing. Continued research on the concurrent effects of the knowledge base should provide a more complete account of childrens memory than that currently available, taking into consideration knowledge of the materials, understanding of the task demands, as well as overall strategic abilities. Similarly, research on the long-term developmental effects of the knowledge base on memory strategies should facilitate an understanding of the mechanisms by which memory processing becomes more efficient and less effortful. Ideally, studies that examine these issues should be longitudinal in scope (Ornstein et al., 1985a), but even cross-sectional research that explores the interrelationships between strategies and knowledge will facilitate an understanding of the development of memory in children.

ADHD symptoms in children with FXS.

Parent‐ and teacher‐report of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms were examined using problem behavior and DSM‐IV symptom inventory questionnaires for 63 children with full mutation fragile X syndrome (FXS) and 56 children without disabilities matched on mental age (MA). Prevalence rates of ADHD symptoms varied depending on type of measure (problem behavior or DSM‐IV criteria), subscale (ADHD‐inattentive or ADHD‐hyperactive), scoring method (continuous T‐scores or categorical scores based on DSM‐IV algorithm), and rater (parent or teacher). Overall, 54–59% of boys with FXS met diagnostic behavioral criteria for either ADHD‐inattentive type only, ADHD‐hyperactive type only, or ADHD‐combined type based on parent or teacher report. Boys with FXS were rated as having clinically high scores or met diagnostic criteria at higher rates than expected for the general population and had higher raw scores than their MA‐matched peers. Parent ratings of boys with FXS resulted in higher ADHD‐inattentive type and ADHD‐hyperactive type T‐scores than teachers. Boys who were rated as meeting DSM‐IV criteria were more likely to be taking psychotropic medication and to have younger mental ages. Parents were substantially more likely than teachers to rate boys as meeting DSM‐IV criteria for ADHD‐inattentive type, while teachers were only slightly more likely than parents to rate boys as meeting DSM‐IV criteria for ADHD‐hyperactive type. Teachers were more likely than parents to rate boys as meeting DSM‐IV criteria for ADHD when boys had lower levels of FMRP.

The expression of memorization in early childhood.

This experiment examined the expression and effectiveness of memorization in young children. Sixty children at each of the ages 4, 5, and 6 were randomly assigned to a memory group or to one of two control groups. All of the children were told that they could play with a group of toys during a brief activity period; the children in the memory condition were also instructed to memorize a specified subset of the toys. Mnemonic mediators were identified on the basis of differences in the activity period behaviors of children given memory and play instructions. Relative to the children in the play groups, the children in the memory conditions played with the toys less; further, their use of naming and visual examination as mnemonic mediators differentiated the groups at all ages and increased with age. Only the oldest subjects given memory instructions, however, demonstrated superior recall. The relationships between activity period behavior and recall among the different conditions were explored with regression techniques. although previous research has focused on identifying the earliest use of memory strategies, the present findings underscore the importance of examining the development of these skills.

Coherence of Personal Narratives Across the Lifespan: A Multidimensional Model and Coding Method

Personal narratives are integral to autobiographical memory and to identity, with coherent personal narratives being linked to positive developmental outcomes across the lifespan. In this article, we review the theoretical and empirical literature that sets the stage for a new lifespan model of personal narrative coherence. This new model integrates context, chronology, and theme as essential dimensions of personal narrative coherence, each of which relies upon different developmental achievements and has a different developmental trajectory across the lifespan. A multidimensional method of coding narrative coherence (the Narrative Coherence Coding Scheme) was derived from the model and is described here. The utility of this approach is demonstrated by its application to 498 narratives that were collected in six laboratories from participants ranging in age from 3 years old to adulthood. The value of the model is illustrated further by a discussion of its potential to guide future research on the developmental foundations of narrative coherence and on the benefits of personal narrative coherence for different aspects of psychological functioning.

Executive functions in young males with fragile X syndrome in comparison to mental age-matched controls: baseline findings from a longitudinal study.

The performance of 54 boys with fragile X syndrome (FXS), ages 7 to 13 years, was compared to that of a group of typically developing boys who were matched on mental age (MA) and ethnicity across multiple measures of executive function (EF). Boys with FXS varied in their ability to complete EF measures, with only 25.9% being able to complete a set-shifting task and 94.4% being able to complete a memory for word span task. When compared to the control group, and controlling for MA and maternal education, boys with FXS showed significant deficits in inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility/set-shifting, and planning. No group differences were observed in processing speed. Mental age significantly impacted performance on working memory, set-shifting, planning, and processing speed tasks for both groups. In boys with FXS, MA significantly predicted performance on working memory and set-shifting tasks. Our findings suggest that deficits in EF in boys with FXS are not solely attributable to developmental delays but, rather, present as a true array of neurocognitive deficits.

Developmental trends in children's typicality judgments

Category typicality norms from 12 natural language categories are presented for kindergarten, third-grade, sixth-grade, and college students. Subjects first selected examples of familiar word concepts and rated them on a 3-point scale in terms of category typicality. Age differences in the percentage of items included as category members were found primarily for the less typical items, with inclusion rates varying as a function of both age and typicality level. The absolute level of typicality judgments increased with age, although correlations between the children’s and college students’ ratings were generally significant for all three children’s groups, with average correlations increasing somewhat with age. It was suggested that the rating data would be useful to developmental investigators interested in children’s processing of category information.

Children's knowledge, expectation, and long‐term retention

To examine the influence of prior knowledge on childrens immediate and delayed recall of the details of a physical examination, 4- and 6-year-olds received a specially constructed check-up that included some typical, expected medical features (e.g. listening to the heart), while omitting others, and incorporated several atypical, unexpected procedures (e.g. measuring head circumference). Using a combination of open-ended and more specific probes, the children were assessed for their recall of expected and unexpected features that had been included in or omitted from the examination. Expectation based on prior knowledge affected three aspects of performance. First, correct recall of typical features that had been experienced exceeded that of unexpected features. Second, after a 12-week delay, spontaneous incorrect recall of expected-but-omitted features was considerable, with 42% of 4-year-olds and 72% of 6-year-olds making at least one intrusion, and essentially zero for atypical procedures that were unexpected and omitted. Third, when questioned directly about medical procedures not included in the examination, correct denials were high for atypical features, but at chance levels for those that were expected. The positive and negative influences of knowledge raise questions about childrens abilities to differentiate clearly between experience and expectation and have implications for understanding their testimony.

Developmental changes in memory: The effects of processing time and rehearsal instructions

Abstract An overt rehearsal procedure was used to investigate the relationship between childrens rehearsal strategies and free recall performance. Previous work has shown that developmental differences in rehearsal content, rather than rehearsal frequency, affect recall performance. This experiment investigated the effects of increased processing time and rehearsal training upon recall. Third-grade girls (age 8) were able to use additional processing time to increase the activity of their rehearsal, and they showed corresponding improvement in recall. In contrast, third-grade boys (age 8) and sixth-grade boys and girls (age 12) did not take advantage of a slower presentation rate to rehearse more actively, and their recall did not change. Further, even without additional processing time, both the third-grade boys and girls were able to use an instructed active rehearsal strategy to facilitate their recall. The direct manipulation of rehearsal activity and the resulting improvement in recall provide experimental support for the proposed relationship between rehearsal content and recall from long-term memory store.

Age differences in organization and recall: The effects of training in categorization ☆

Abstract An alternating sort/recall task was employed to train fourth graders and college students in organizational strategies. Free-sorting Ss, at both age levels, sorted a group of words into two to seven categories. Analyses of final sorting patterns indicated reliable differences between the children and adults. The organizational schemes thus developed by the free-sorting Ss were taught, by means of a yoking procedure, to other Ss. Results indicated that the recall of fourth graders was improved when they were forced to learn the sorting patterns developed by the older Ss. Similarly, impairment in the recall of college students was observed when they were required to sort according to the organization employed by the fourth graders. These findings imply that changes in organization can result in changes in recall performance.