Deborah Russell Carter

Concurrent Validity of Office Discipline Referrals and Cut Points Used in Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support.

Office discipline referrals (ODRs) are commonly used by school teams implementing schoolwide positive behavior support to indicate individual student need for additional behavior support. However, little is known about the technical adequacy of ODRs when used in this manner. In this study, the authors assessed (a) the concurrent validity of number of ODRs received with a contemporary standardized behavior rating scale (the BASC-2 Teacher Report Form) and (b) the validity of common cut points to determine level of support needed (i.e., 0 to 1, 2 to 5, and 6 or more ODRs). Results indicated strong correlations between ODRs and rating of externalizing behavior and statistically and clinically significant differences in behavior ratings based on existing ODR cut points, but there was no significant relation between ODRs and ratings of internalizing problems. Results are discussed in terms of recommended use of ODRs as a screening measure to indicate level of behavior support required.

A Family Strengths Approach to Early Language and Literacy Development

Language and literacy skills are an essential element of young children’s development and allow them to interact meaningfully with other people and to develop knowledge in all subject areas. Despite the importance of language and literacy development, however, more than one-third of children in the United States enter school with significant differences in language, early literacy skills, and motivation to learn that place them at considerable risk for developing long-term reading difficulties. The quantity and quality of language interactions children have with their parents and exposure to print in their home environment prior to entering school have an important impact on these individual differences. This paper provides teachers with guidelines and tools for helping families identify and create language and literacy opportunities in their home environment that reflect their unique strengths and routines.

Systematic Implementation of a Tier 2 Behavior Intervention

Schools are increasingly adopting tiered models of prevention to meet the needs of diverse populations of students. This article outlines the steps involved in designing and implementing a systematic Tier 2 behavior intervention within a tiered service delivery model. An elementary school example is provided to outline the identification, implementation, and data-based decision-making process. Recommendations are provided for teachers related to supporting the effective and systematic implementation of Tier 2 behavior supports.

Validity Evidence for the Test of Silent Reading Efficiency and Comprehension (TOSREC).

An essential component of a response to intervention (RTI) framework is a screening process that is both accurate and efficient. The purpose of this study was to analyze the validity evidence for the Test of Silent Reading Efficiency and Comprehension (TOSREC) to determine its potential for use within a screening process. Participants included 226 students in Grades 1 to 5. Validity evidence was analyzed through (a) correlation with performance on concurrent, individually administered oral reading fluency (ORF) measures, (b) correlation with performance on concurrently administered reading comprehension measures, (c) correlation of fall and winter TOSREC performance with a state reading outcome measure administered in spring, (d) a binary classification analysis to predict whether students met grade-level performance benchmarks on a state reading assessment, and (e) a stepwise regression analysis examining the variance in performance on a state assessment accounted for by TOSREC and ORF. The concurrent correlations of TOSREC with ORF were high, with the exception of the fall fourth grade administration. Correlations of TOSREC and outcome measures were consistent with those of ORF. The binary classification analysis examining the TOSREC’s ability to accurately predict those students who did not meet grade-level performance benchmarks on the state’s reading assessment demonstrated high classification accuracy (90%) as well as high sensitivity (78%) and specificity (86%). Finally, a regression analysis indicated that the TOSREC accounted for additional unique variance in state assessment performance above and beyond ORF. Implications for practice are discussed.

The Use and Effectiveness of a Targeted Math Intervention for Third Graders

Students who fail to develop proficiency in math skills in the primary grades are more likely to experience difficulties in the math curriculum later on. These students may be in need of a more targeted intervention, or Tier 2 supports, in mathematic instruction. Although the instructional principles of an effective math intervention are becoming better understood, the practice of designing and implementing an effective Tier 2 math intervention system challenges many schools. This article documents a case study of one school’s experience in designing a Tier 2 math intervention system for 10 third graders to provide a model of effective Tier 2 systems.

Lessons Learned From a Tiered Service Delivery Implementation Project

Tiered models of service delivery for both academics and behavior are being increasingly adopted across the nation, and discussions of how to implement these models effectively and simultaneously are growing. In this article, the authors share some lessons learned from a 2-year implementation project to implement a comprehensive (both academic and behavior) model of tiered service delivery in an elementary school. The authors discuss four major issues that arose during implementation, including signs for predicting these challenges and insights into how they can be addressed.

Tier 2 Team Processes and Decision-Making in a Comprehensive Three-Tiered Model

Three-tiered models of academic and behavioral support are being increasingly adopted across the nation, and with that adoption has come an increasing message that designing and implementing effective practices alone is not enough. Systems are needed to help staff to collectively implement best practices. These systems, as well as effective processes for collecting and using data for decision-making, are necessary at each tier. This article outlines the systems considerations and decision-making processes for Tier 2 adopted by one elementary school in the implementation of a combined response to intervention (RTI) and school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS) model.

Self-Regulated Strategy Development as a Tier 2 Writing Intervention.

In a response to intervention framework, the implication of limited writing instruction suggests an immediate need for Tier 2 interventions to support struggling writers while at the same time addressing instructional gaps in Tier 1. Many schools struggle with implementing writing intervention, partly because of the limited number of evidence-based writing instructional approaches. This article documents one school’s journey through the process of identifying, implementing, and evaluating outcomes of a Tier 2 writing intervention using self-regulated strategy development (SRSD).

Introduction to the Special Issue The Critical Role of a Strong Tier 2 System

The purpose of this special issue is to help schools better understand how they might get started with implementing a strong Tier 2 system within the context of a multitiered service delivery model. The promise of multitiered service delivery models is that students who struggle can be identified early and receive interventions before their challenges become intractable. In this issue, a series of articles describe how one school implemented Tier 2 systems to address the needs of struggling students in reading, math, writing, and behavior. In addition, the systems that schools need to facilitate Tier 2 implementation are described.