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Use of static Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment to determine pathogen risks in an unconfined carbonate aquifer used for Managed Aquifer Recharge.

Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) is becoming a mechanism used for recycling treated wastewater and captured urban stormwater and is being used as a treatment barrier to remove contaminants such as pathogens from the recharged water. There is still a need, however, to demonstrate the effectiveness of MAR to reduce any residual risk of pathogens in the recovered water. A MAR research site recharging secondary treated wastewater in an unconfined carbonate aquifer was used in conjunction with a static Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) to assess the microbial pathogen risk in the recovered water following infiltration and aquifer passage. The research involved undertaking a detailed hydrogeological assessment of the aquifer at the MAR site and determining the decay rates of reference pathogens from an in-situ decay study. These variables along with literature data were then used in the static QMRA which demonstrated that the recovered water at this site did not meet the Australian Guidelines for recycled water when used for differing private green space irrigation scenarios. The results also confirmed the importance of obtaining local hydrogeological data as local heterogeneity can influence of residence time in the aquifer which, in turn, influences the outcomes. The research demonstrated that a static QMRA can be used to determine the residual risk from pathogens in recovered water and showed that it can be a valuable tool in the preliminary design and operation of MAR systems and the incorporation of complementary engineered treatment processes to ensure that there is acceptable health risk from the recovered water.

Valuing the subsurface pathogen treatment barrier in water recycling via aquifers for drinking supplies

A quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) was performed at four managed aquifer recharge (MAR) sites (Australia, South Africa, Belgium, Mexico) where reclaimed wastewater and stormwater is recycled via aquifers for drinking water supplies, using the same risk-based approach that is used for public water supplies. For each of the sites, the aquifer treatment barrier was assessed for its log(10) removal capacity much like for other water treatment technologies. This information was then integrated into a broader risk assessment to determine the human health burden from the four MAR sites. For the Australian and South African cases, managing the aquifer treatment barrier was found to be critical for the schemes to have low risk. For the Belgian case study, the large treatment trains both in terms of pre- and post-aquifer recharge ensures that the risk is always low. In the Mexico case study, the risk was high due to the lack of pre-treatment and the low residence times of the recharge water in the aquifer. A further sensitivity analysis demonstrated that human health risk can be managed if aquifers are integrated into a treatment train to attenuate pathogens. However, reduction in human health disease burden (as measured in disability adjusted life years, DALYs) varied depending upon the number of pathogens in the recharge source water. The beta-Poisson dose response curve used for translating rotavirus and Cryptosporidium numbers into DALYs coupled with their slow environmental decay rates means poor quality injectant leads to aquifers having reduced value to reduce DALYs. For these systems, like the Mexican case study, longer residence times are required to meet their DALYs guideline for drinking water. Nevertheless the results showed that the risks from pathogens can still be reduced and recharging via an aquifer is safer than discharging directly into surface water bodies.

Pathogen inactivation during passage of stormwater through a constructed reedbed and aquifer transfer, storage and recovery.

A study was undertaken to determine the potential inactivation rates of selected enteric microorganisms in captured urban stormwater within a constructed reedbed and in tertiary carbonated aquifer during an Aquifer Storage, Transfer and Recovery (ASTR) scheme. The study was undertaken in-situ in the constructed reedbed and aquifer using diffusion chambers. The results showed that all tested bacteria had one log(10) reduction time of less than 6 and 2.5 days respectively in constructed reedbeds and aquifer, which suggests that presence of enteric bacteria in the recovered water is unlikely. However, adenovirus and Cryptosporidium oocysts showed lower inactivation rates with one log(10) reduction times of more than 33 days in the constructed reedbeds. This means that the constructed reedbed with a mean residence time 10 days cannot be relied upon as an efficient treatment barrier for virus and protozoa. Storage of stormwater in aquifer with brackish water resulted in slow inactivation of enteric viruses over the 35 day incubation period with adenovirus and rotavirus showing slowest inactivation times (extrapolated T(90) of >100 days). Cryptosporidium oocysts showed similar inactivation rate in the constructed reedbed and aquifer.

An explanation for differences in the process of colloid adsorption in batch and column studies

It is essential to understand the mechanisms that control virus and bacteria removal in the subsurface environment to assess the risk of groundwater contamination with fecal microorganisms. This study was conducted to explicitly provide a critical and systematic comparison between batch and column experiments. The aim was to investigate the underlying factors causing the commonly observed discrepancies in colloid adsorption process in column and batch systems. We examined the colloid adsorption behavior of four different sizes of carboxylate-modified latex (CML) microspheres, as surrogates for viruses and bacteria, on quartz sand in batch and column experiments over a wide range of solution ionic strengths (IS). Our results show that adsorption of colloids in batch systems should be considered as an irreversible attachment because the attachment/detachment model was found to be inadequate in describing the batch results. An irreversible attachment-blocking model was found to accurately describe the results of both batch and column experiments. The rate of attachment was found to depend highly on colloid size, solution IS and the fraction of the sand surface area favorable for attachment (Sf). The rate of attachment and Sf values were different in batch and column experiments due to differences in the hydrodynamic of the system, and the role of surface roughness and pore structure on colloid attachment. Results from column and batch experiments were generally not comparable, especially for larger colloids (≥0.5μm). Predictions based on classical DLVO theory were found to inadequately describe interaction energies between colloids and sand surfaces.

Pyrolysis characterisation of plant, humus and soil extracts from Australian catchments

Abstract Dissolved organic matter (DOM) from vegetation, humus layers and soils of four reservoir catchments in south-eastern Australian were characterised by flash pyrolysis and off-line thermochemolysis using tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH). The aim of this work was to identify organic compounds which might act as tracers of terrestrially derived bio-macromolecules to the drinking water reservoirs. Organic matter in reservoirs is a key issue to the water industry due to it being a precursor of disinfection by-products, causing taste and odours and is a substrate for microbial growth in a distribution system. Of the pyrolysis products detected from all three sample types (vegetation, humus and soils) most were molecular tracers of polysaccharides and to a lesser extent lignin and protein. Several benzyl and methoxyphenol compounds were detected from these samples that might enable tracing of terrestrial organic input to reservoirs. Compounds detected from vegetation, humus and soil samples by thermochemolysis were predominantly methoxy benzene structures, indicative of lignin sources and tannin, though compounds indicative of polysaccharides, lipids and resins acids were also detected. Ratios of syringyl to courmaryl moieties were found to be highest from locations with native hardwoods and these ratios consistently decreased from vegetation to humus to soil samples.

Quantification of herbicide removal in a constructed wetland using passive samplers and composite water quality monitoring.

Constructed wetlands used as treatment for urban stormwater have the potential to improve water quality. This study aimed to estimate the removal of selected herbicides in stormwater by a constructed wetland using composite water quality monitoring and passive samplers. For the four week duration of the study the wetland was effective in reducing the concentrations of diuron, simazine and atrazine. Mean estimated concentrations over a 28 d period were 192, 70 and 5 ng L(-1) at the inlet and 94, 30 and 2 ng L(-1) at the outlet for diuron, simazine and atrazine, respectively. Concentrations of these herbicides generally halved as a result of passage through the constructed wetland with a design hydraulic retention time of 7d. Simple ratios of the inlet and outlet herbicide concentrations as well as hydraulic load-based methods of measuring the wetlands removal efficiency resulted in a range of estimations 33-51% for diuron and 20-60% for simazine. Due to their lower detection limits, the use of passive samplers provides a more efficient technique than conventional sampling for assessment of stormwater wetland treatment.

Pathogen decay during managed aquifer recharge at four sites with different geochemical characteristics and recharge water sources

Recycling of stormwater water and treated effluent via managed aquifer recharge (MAR) has often been hampered because of perceptions of low microbiological quality of recovered water and associated health risks. The goal of this study was to assess the removal of selected pathogens in four large-scale MAR schemes and to determine the influence of aquifer characteristics, geochemistry, and type of recharge water on the pathogen survival times. Bacterial pathogens tested in this study had the shortest one log removal time (, <3 d), followed by oocysts (, <120 d), with enteric viruses having the biggest variability in removal times (, 18 to >200 d). Human adenovirus and rotavirus were relatively persistent under anaerobic conditions (, >200 d). Human adenovirus survived longer than all the other enteric virus tested in the study and hence could be used as a conservative indicator for virus removal in groundwater during MAR. The results suggest that site-specific subsurface conditions such as groundwater chemistry can have considerable influence on the decay rates of enteric pathogens and that viruses are likely to be the critical pathogens from a public health perspective.

Water quality requirements for sustaining aquifer storage and recovery operations in a low permeability fractured rock aquifer

A changing climate and increasing urbanisation has driven interest in the use of aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) schemes as an environmental management tool to supplement conventional water resources. This study focuses on ASR with stormwater in a low permeability fractured rock aquifer and the selection of water treatment methods to prevent well clogging. In this study two different injection and recovery phases were trialed. In the first phase ~1380 m(3) of potable water was injected and recovered over four cycles. In the second phase ~3300 m(3) of treated stormwater was injected and ~2410 m(3) were subsequently recovered over three cycles. Due to the success of the potable water injection cycles, its water quality was used to set pre-treatment targets for harvested urban stormwater of ≤ 0.6 NTU turbidity, ≤ 1.7 mg/L dissolved organic carbon and ≤ 0.2 mg/L biodegradable dissolved organic carbon. A range of potential ASR pre-treatment options were subsequently evaluated resulting in the adoption of an ultrafiltration/granular activated carbon system to remove suspended solids and nutrients which cause physical and biological clogging. ASR cycle testing with potable water and treated stormwater demonstrated that urban stormwater containing variable turbidity (mean 5.5 NTU) and organic carbon (mean 8.3 mg/L) concentrations before treatment could be injected into a low transmissivity fractured rock aquifer and recovered for irrigation supplies. A small decline in permeability of the formation in the vicinity of the injection well was apparent even with high quality water that met turbidity and DOC but could not consistently achieve the BDOC criteria.

Application of a probabilistic modelling approach for evaluation of nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon removal efficiency during four successive cycles of aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) in an anoxic carbonate aquifer

Aquifer storage is increasingly being recognised in its role as a treatment process barrier within a multiple barrier approach to water reuse. Aquifers are postulated to have the ability to provide sustainable treatment for removal of nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon, the dominant nutrient hazards in water recycling, but, to date this treatment performance has remained difficult to validate in field studies. This study applied a statistical method, proposed for validation of the performance of advanced water treatment processes, to evaluate nutrient removal during aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) with recycled water. Analysis of observed water quality changes during four successive ASR cycles with highly variable source water quality was used to describe the removal efficiencies for selected nutrients by an anoxic carbonate aquifer. The use of this method was found to be suitable to calculate removal efficiencies for total organic carbon (TOC) and total nitrogen (TN) over four ASR cycles with temporally variable concentrations of nutrients in the tertiary treated wastewater injectant. TOC and TN removal was dominated by redox processes, aerobic respiration and denitrification. Median removal of TOC ranged from 25 to 40% and TN from 46 to 87% over the four cycles. There was no observable reduction in this removal with time, suggesting that removal of TOC and TN by redox processes can be sustained in an ASR system. Contrastingly, total phosphorous (TP) was subject to reversible removal via adsorption and desorption processes and as a result, removal efficiency could not be calculated with this method. Thus in general, results indicated that this statistical method could be used to characterise the capacity of the anoxic carbonate aquifer treatment barrier for removal of carbon and nitrogen, but not for removal of phosphorus.

Characterising aquifer treatment for pathogens in managed aquifer recharge

In this study the value of subsurface treatment of urban stormwater during Aquifer Storage Transfer Recovery (ASTR) is characterised using quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) methodology. The ASTR project utilizes a multi-barrier treatment train to treat urban stormwater but to date the role of the aquifer has not been quantified. In this study it was estimated that the aquifer barrier provided 1.4, 2.6, >6.0 log(10) removals for rotavirus, Cryptosporidium and Campylobacter respectively based on pathogen diffusion chamber results. The aquifer treatment barrier was found to vary in importance vis-à-vis the pre-treatment via a constructed wetland and potential post-treatment options of UV-disinfection and chlorination for the reference pathogens. The risk assessment demonstrated that the human health risk associated with potable reuse of stormwater can be mitigated (disability adjusted life years, DALYs <1 × 10(-6)) if the aquifer is integrated with suitable post treatment options into a treatment train to attenuate pathogens and protect human health.