Joanne Vanderzalm

Colloid release and clogging in porous media: Effects of solution ionic strength and flow velocity

The release and retention of in-situ colloids in aquifers play an important role in the sustainable operation of managed aquifer recharge (MAR) schemes. The processes of colloid release, retention, and associated permeability changes in consolidated aquifer sediments were studied by displacing native groundwater with reverse osmosis-treated (RO) water at various flow velocities. Significant amounts of colloid release occurred when: (i) the native groundwater was displaced by RO-water with a low ionic strength (IS), and (ii) the flow velocity was increased in a stepwise manner. The amount of colloid release and associated permeability reduction upon RO-water injection depended on the initial clay content of the core. The concentration of released colloids was relatively low and the permeability reduction was negligible for the core sample with a low clay content of about 1.3%. In contrast, core samples with about 6 and 7.5% clay content exhibited: (i) close to two orders of magnitude increase in effluent colloid concentration and (ii) more than 65% permeability reduction. Incremental improvement in the core permeability was achieved when the flow velocity increased, whereas a short flow interruption provided a considerable increase in the core permeability. This dependence of colloid release and permeability changes on flow velocity and colloid concentration was consistent with colloid retention and release at pore constrictions due to the mechanism of hydrodynamic bridging. A mathematical model was formulated to describe the processes of colloid release, transport, retention at pore constrictions, and subsequent permeability changes. Our experimental and modeling results indicated that only a small fraction of the in-situ colloids was released for any given change in the IS or flow velocity. Comparison of the fitted and experimentally measured effluent colloid concentrations and associated changes in the core permeability showed good agreement, indicating that the essential physics were accurately captured by the model.

Application of a probabilistic modelling approach for evaluation of nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon removal efficiency during four successive cycles of aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) in an anoxic carbonate aquifer

Aquifer storage is increasingly being recognised in its role as a treatment process barrier within a multiple barrier approach to water reuse. Aquifers are postulated to have the ability to provide sustainable treatment for removal of nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon, the dominant nutrient hazards in water recycling, but, to date this treatment performance has remained difficult to validate in field studies. This study applied a statistical method, proposed for validation of the performance of advanced water treatment processes, to evaluate nutrient removal during aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) with recycled water. Analysis of observed water quality changes during four successive ASR cycles with highly variable source water quality was used to describe the removal efficiencies for selected nutrients by an anoxic carbonate aquifer. The use of this method was found to be suitable to calculate removal efficiencies for total organic carbon (TOC) and total nitrogen (TN) over four ASR cycles with temporally variable concentrations of nutrients in the tertiary treated wastewater injectant. TOC and TN removal was dominated by redox processes, aerobic respiration and denitrification. Median removal of TOC ranged from 25 to 40% and TN from 46 to 87% over the four cycles. There was no observable reduction in this removal with time, suggesting that removal of TOC and TN by redox processes can be sustained in an ASR system. Contrastingly, total phosphorous (TP) was subject to reversible removal via adsorption and desorption processes and as a result, removal efficiency could not be calculated with this method. Thus in general, results indicated that this statistical method could be used to characterise the capacity of the anoxic carbonate aquifer treatment barrier for removal of carbon and nitrogen, but not for removal of phosphorus.

Factors affecting the performance and risks to human health of on-site wastewater treatment systems

Aerobic wastewater treatment systems (aerobic systems) are the preferred choice in a region overlying a karstic aquifer used for drinking water supplies, as they are thought to provide better protection to groundwater and human health than standard septic systems. However, aerobic systems in operation do not always perform to design standard; while this is often blamed on lack of maintenance, few studies have investigated the link directly. This study investigates the performance of domestic on-site wastewater treatment systems in South Australia, and compares effluent quality to maintenance records. Effluent from 29 septic tanks and 31 aerobic systems was analysed for nutrients, physico-chemical parameters and microbiological indicators. Aerobic systems generally provided greater treatment than septic tanks, yet most aerobic systems did not meet regulatory guidelines with high levels of indicator bacteria in 71% of samples. The effect of system size, number of household occupants and maintenance on aerobic system treatment performance was analysed: chlorine levels were positively correlated with time of last service, and nutrient concentrations were positively correlated with the number of occupants. A microbial risk assessment revealed the observed irrigation practices to be high risk; and sufficient residence time in the aquifer cannot be guaranteed for protection of groundwater used for drinking. Additional preventive measures such as irrigation management or post treatment of drinking water supply (such as UV disinfection) are required to meet public health targets.

FIELD EVALUATION OF PASSIVE SAMPLERS: MONITORING POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAHs) IN STORMWATER

Abstract The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of using semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) and polyethylene-based passive sampler devices (PSDs) for monitoring PAHs in stormwater. Firstly, SPMDs were deployed at one site and SPMD-derived water concentrations were compared with water concentration measured from grab samples. In a subsequent deployment the performance of SPMDs and PSDs was compared. Finally PSDs of multiple surface area to volume ratios were used to compare PAH concentrations at the two sites. The results obtained in this study show that SPMDs can be used to measure the water concentration of PAHs with reasonable accuracy, when compared with grab samples collected at the same site. Importantly, several PAHs which could not be detected in a 10 L grab sample could be detected in the SPMDs. PSD and SPMD samplers produced similar results when deployed at the same site, with most estimated water concentrations within a factor of 1.5. The use of PSDs in multiple surface area to volume ratios proved to be an effective means of characterizing the uptake kinetics for PAHs in situ. Overall passive water samplers proved to be an efficient technique for monitoring PAHs in stormwater.

Application of a risk management framework to a drinking water supply augmented by stormwater recharge

The Blue Lake is an important water resource for the city of Mount Gambier and the surrounding region, primarily as the drinking water supply source, but also as a tourist attraction. Mount Gambiers stormwater is discharged directly via drainage wells into the unconfined, karstic Gambier Limestone aquifer, which in turn provides the majority of recharge to Blue Lake. Discharge of urban runoff to the aquifer commenced in the 1800s as a means of stormwater management, but is now recognised as contributing to the drinking water supply in Blue Lake. Recently, guidelines for managing the risks associated with water recycling and augmenting drinking water supplies have been developed. This paper examines the organic chemical hazards associated with a stormwater to potable recycling scheme as an example of the current risk management framework.

Unraveling the complexities of the velocity dependency of E. coli retention and release parameters in saturated porous media

Escherichia coli transport and release experiments were conducted to investigate the pore-water velocity (v) dependency of the sticking efficiency (α), the fraction of the solid surface area that contributed to retention (Sf), the percentage of injected cells that were irreversibly retained (Mirr), and cell release under different (10-300mM) ionic strength (IS) conditions. Values of α, Sf, and Mirr increased with increasing IS and decreasing v, but the dependency on v was greatest at intermediate IS (30 and 50mM). Following the retention phase, successive increases in v up to 100 or 150mday-1 and flow interruption of 24h produced negligible amounts of cell release. However, excavation of the sand from the columns in excess electrolyte solution resulted in the release of >80% of the retained bacteria. These observations were explained by: (i) extended interaction energy calculations on a heterogeneous sand collector; (ii) an increase in adhesive strength with the residence time; and (iii) torque balance consideration on rough surfaces. In particular, α, Sf, and Mirr increased with IS due to lower energy barriers and stronger primary minima. The values of α, Sf, and Mirr also increased with decreasing v because the adhesive strength increased with the residence time (e.g., an increased probability to diffuse over the energy barrier) and lower hydrodynamic forces diminished cell removal. The controlling influence of lever arms at microscopic roughness locations and grain-grain contacts were used to explain negligible cell removal with large increases in v and large amounts of cell recovery following sand excavation. Results reveal the underlying causes (interaction energy, torque balance, and residence time) of the velocity dependency of E. coli retention and release parameters (ksw, α, and Sf) that are not accounted for in colloid filtration theory.

Stormwater Quality Review to Evaluate Treatment for Drinking Water Supply via Managed Aquifer Recharge

To date, there is no compiled information for stormwater quality data intended for drinking water supply via managed aquifer recharge (MAR) making risk assessment of these schemes difficult. This study compiles hazards relevant to water recycling via MAR and calculates the associated 95th percentile values. The 95th percentiles of iron, turbidity, colour and faecal indicators exceeded the guideline values at all sites. Likewise, measured hazards for which 95th percentile values met drinking water guidelines (other metals (e.g. zinc), salinity (electrical conductivity) and nutrients including nitrate) did so at all sites. Considering a variety of climatic zones and catchment characteristics and the temporal variations typical in urban stormwater quality, there was a remarkable similarity in the 95th percentile concentrations for a suite of water quality hazards in urban stormwater. This is important in consideration of drinking water risk assessments and determining treatment requirements for potable use.

Roof Runoff Replenishment of Groundwater in Jinan, China

AbstractIn Jinan, China, which is named the Spring City of China, karst groundwater is an important water source for urban supply and maintaining spring flow. However, rapid urbanization in Jinan, China, has caused overexploitation of groundwater and an increase in surface runoff. Consequently, roof runoff harvesting and recycling via the aquifer is being considered to augment the recharge for this area. A pilot-managed aquifer recharge scheme with urban roof runoff was investigated as part of this case study to supplement groundwater recharge. This case study is intended as a pilot for the wider application of managed aquifer recharge at the University of Jinan. The pilot-scale system is composed of the roof catchment, first-flush removal device, regulating tank, filter tank, and recharge well; dimensions and operating parameters of each component were designed by laboratory experiment and hydraulic calculations. The quality of roof runoff is better than road runoff; however, it is still contains a numbe...