Denis Bucher

Accessing a hidden conformation of the maltose binding protein using accelerated molecular dynamics.

Periplasmic binding proteins (PBPs) are a large family of molecular transporters that play a key role in nutrient uptake and chemotaxis in Gram-negative bacteria. All PBPs have characteristic two-domain architecture with a central interdomain ligand-binding cleft. Upon binding to their respective ligands, PBPs undergo a large conformational change that effectively closes the binding cleft. This conformational change is traditionally viewed as a ligand induced-fit process; however, the intrinsic dynamics of the protein may also be crucial for ligand recognition. Recent NMR paramagnetic relaxation enhancement (PRE) experiments have shown that the maltose binding protein (MBP) - a prototypical member of the PBP superfamily - exists in a rapidly exchanging (ns to µs regime) mixture comprising an open state (approx 95%), and a minor partially closed state (approx 5%). Here we describe accelerated MD simulations that provide a detailed picture of the transition between the open and partially closed states, and confirm the existence of a dynamical equilibrium between these two states in apo MBP. We find that a flexible part of the protein called the balancing interface motif (residues 175–184) is displaced during the transformation. Continuum electrostatic calculations indicate that the repacking of non-polar residues near the hinge region plays an important role in driving the conformational change. Oscillations between open and partially closed states create variations in the shape and size of the binding site. The study provides a detailed description of the conformational space available to ligand-free MBP, and has implications for understanding ligand recognition and allostery in related proteins.

Dissociation of NaCl in water from ab initio molecular dynamics simulations

We perform ab initio molecular dynamics simulations to study the dissociation of NaCl in water. The potential of mean force (PMF) between the two ions is determined using the constrained-force method. The simulation windows corresponding to the contact and solvent-separated minima, and the transition state in between, are further analyzed to determine the changes in the properties of hydration waters such as coordination number, dipole moment, and orientation. The ab initio results are compared with those obtained from classical molecular dynamics simulations of aqueous NaCl using several common force fields. The ab initio PMF is found to have a shallower contact minimum and a smaller transition barrier compared with the classical ones. Also the binding free energy calculated from the ab initio PMF almost vanishes whereas it is negative for all the classical PMFs. Water dipole moments are observed to exhibit little change during dissociation, indicating that description of NaCl with a nonpolarizable force field may be feasible. However, overcoordination of the ion pair at all distances remains as a serious shortcoming of the current classical models. The ab initio results presented here provide useful guidance for alternative parametrizations of the nonpolarizable force fields as well as the polarizable ones currently under construction.

Induced Fit or Conformational Selection? The Role of the Semi-closed State in the Maltose Binding Protein

A full characterization of the thermodynamic forces underlying ligand-associated conformational changes in proteins is essential for understanding and manipulating diverse biological processes, including transport, signaling, and enzymatic activity. Recent experiments on the maltose binding protein (MBP) have provided valuable data about the different conformational states implicated in the ligand recognition process; however, a complete picture of the accessible pathways and the associated changes in free energy remains elusive. Here we describe results from advanced accelerated molecular dynamics (aMD) simulations, coupled with adaptively biased force (ABF) and thermodynamic integration (TI) free energy methods. The combination of approaches allows us to track the ligand recognition process on the microsecond time scale and provides a detailed characterization of the protein’s dynamic and the relative energy of stable states. We find that an induced-fit (IF) mechanism is most likely and that a mechanism involving both a conformational selection (CS) step and an IF step is also possible. The complete recognition process is best viewed as a “Pac Man” type action where the ligand is initially localized to one domain and naturally occurring hinge-bending vibrations in the protein are able to assist the recognition process by increasing the chances of a favorable encounter with side chains on the other domain, leading to a population shift. This interpretation is consistent with experiments and provides new insight into the complex recognition mechanism. The methods employed here are able to describe IF and CS effects and provide formally rigorous means of computing free energy changes. As such, they are superior to conventional MD and flexible docking alone and hold great promise for future development and applications to drug discovery.

Coordination Numbers of K+ and Na+ Ions Inside the Selectivity Filter of the KcsA Potassium Channel: Insights from First Principles Molecular Dynamics

Quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) Car-Parrinello simulations were performed to estimate the coordination numbers of K(+) and Na(+) ions in the selectivity filter of the KcsA channel, and in water. At the DFT/BLYP level, K(+) ions were found to display an average coordination number of 6.6 in the filter, and 6.2 in water. Na(+) ions displayed an average coordination number of 5.2 in the filter, and 5.0 in water. A comparison was made with the average coordination numbers obtained from using classical molecular dynamics (6.7 for K(+) in the filter, 6.6 for K(+) in water, 6.0 for Na(+) in the filter, and 5.2 for Na(+) in water). The observation that different coordination numbers were displayed by the ions in QM/MM simulations and in classical molecular dynamics is relevant to the discussion of selectivity in K-channels.

On the Use of Accelerated Molecular Dynamics to Enhance Configurational Sampling in Ab Initio Simulations

We have implemented the accelerated molecular dynamics approach (Hamelberg, D.; Mongan, J.; McCammon, J. A. J. Chem. Phys. 2004, 120 (24), 11919) in the framework of ab initio MD (AIMD). Using three simple examples, we demonstrate that accelerated AIMD (A-AIMD) can be used to accelerate solvent relaxation in AIMD simulations and facilitate the detection of reaction coordinates: (i) We show, for one cyclohexane molecule in the gas phase, that the method can be used to accelerate the rate of the chair-to-chair interconversion by a factor of ∼1 × 105, while allowing for the reconstruction of the correct canonical distribution of low-energy states; (ii) We then show, for a water box of 64 H2O molecules, that A-AIMD can also be used in the condensed phase to accelerate the sampling of water conformations, without affecting the structural properties of the solvent; and (iii) The method is then used to compute the potential of mean force (PMF) for the dissociation of Na−Cl in water, accelerating the convergence by a factor of ∼3−4 compared to conventional AIMD simulations.(2) These results suggest that A-AIMD is a useful addition to existing methods for enhanced conformational and phase-space sampling in solution. While the method does not make the use of collective variables superfluous, it also does not require the user to define a set of collective variables that can capture all the low-energy minima on the potential energy surface. This property may prove very useful when dealing with highly complex multidimensional systems that require a quantum mechanical treatment.

Membranes serve as allosteric activators of phospholipase A2, enabling it to extract, bind, and hydrolyze phospholipid substrates.

Significance The catalytic mechanisms of interfacial enzymes acting directly on the interfacial surface of the membrane are notoriously difficult to study experimentally with X-ray crystallography and other biophysical methods. This scientific study is, to our knowledge, the first to highlight similarities and differences in the extraction and binding of a phospholipid molecule into the substrate binding pocket of two human phospholipases A2 (PLA2s): the cytosolic Group IVA cPLA2 and the calcium-independent Group VIA iPLA2. Molecular dynamics simulations, guided by deuterium exchange experiments, are used to show that pathways to the active sites of these PLA2s are opened upon allosteric interaction with the membrane to facilitate entry of the substrate lipid. These enzymes are involved in various diseases, and understanding their mechanisms will aid in the discovery of therapeutics. Defining the molecular details and consequences of the association of water-soluble proteins with membranes is fundamental to understanding protein–lipid interactions and membrane functioning. Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) enzymes, which catalyze the hydrolysis of phospholipid substrates that compose the membrane bilayers, provide the ideal system for studying protein–lipid interactions. Our study focuses on understanding the catalytic cycle of two different human PLA2s: the cytosolic Group IVA cPLA2 and calcium-independent Group VIA iPLA2. Computer-aided techniques guided by deuterium exchange mass spectrometry data, were used to create structural complexes of each enzyme with a single phospholipid substrate molecule, whereas the substrate extraction process was studied using steered molecular dynamics simulations. Molecular dynamic simulations of the enzyme–substrate–membrane systems revealed important information about the mechanisms by which these enzymes associate with the membrane and then extract and bind their phospholipid substrate. Our data support the hypothesis that the membrane acts as an allosteric ligand that binds at the allosteric site of the enzyme’s interfacial surface, shifting its conformation from a closed (inactive) state in water to an open (active) state at the membrane interface.

Fluoroketone Inhibitionof Ca2+-Independent Phospholipase A2 through Binding Pocket Association Definedby Hydrogen/Deuterium Exchange and Molecular Dynamics

The mechanism of inhibition of group VIA Ca2+-independent phospholipase A2 (iPLA2) by fluoroketone (FK) ligands is examined by a combination of deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (DXMS) and molecular dynamics (MD). Models for iPLA2 were built by homology with the known structure of patatin and equilibrated by extensive MD simulations. Empty pockets were identified during the simulations and studied for their ability to accommodate FK inhibitors. Ligand docking techniques showed that the potent inhibitor 1,1,1,3-tetrafluoro-7-phenylheptan-2-one (PHFK) forms favorable interactions inside an active-site pocket, where it blocks the entrance of phospholipid substrates. The polar fluoroketone headgroup is stabilized by hydrogen bonds with residues Gly486, Gly487, and Ser519. The nonpolar aliphatic chain and aromatic group are stabilized by hydrophobic contacts with Met544, Val548, Phe549, Leu560, and Ala640. The binding mode is supported by DXMS experiments showing an important decrease of deuteration in the contact regions in the presence of the inhibitor. The discovery of the precise binding mode of FK ligands to the iPLA2 should greatly improve our ability to design new inhibitors with higher potency and selectivity.

Accelerated Molecular Dynamics Simulations with the AMOEBA Polarizable Force Field on Graphics Processing Units

The accelerated molecular dynamics (aMD) method has recently been shown to enhance the sampling of biomolecules in molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, often by several orders of magnitude. Here, we describe an implementation of the aMD method for the OpenMM application layer that takes full advantage of graphics processing units (GPUs) computing. The aMD method is shown to work in combination with the AMOEBA polarizable force field (AMOEBA-aMD), allowing the simulation of long time-scale events with a polarizable force field. Benchmarks are provided to show that the AMOEBA-aMD method is efficiently implemented and produces accurate results in its standard parametrization. For the BPTI protein, we demonstrate that the protein structure described with AMOEBA remains stable even on the extended time scales accessed at high levels of accelerations. For the DNA repair metalloenzyme endonuclease IV, we show that the use of the AMOEBA force field is a significant improvement over fixed charged models for describing the enzyme active-site. The new AMOEBA-aMD method is publicly available (http://wiki.simtk.org/openmm/VirtualRepository) and promises to be interesting for studying complex systems that can benefit from both the use of a polarizable force field and enhanced sampling.

Molecular simulations of ion channels: a quantum chemist"s perspective

Molecular dynamics (MD) has become a popular method to study ion channels by theoretical means and to provide new insights into their fundamental properties, such as fast conduction and ion specificity. This Perspective deals with one of the current challenges of biomolecular MD studies: the

Polarization of water in the first hydration shell of K+ and Ca2+ ions

Accurate representation of the interactions of water molecules with charges is essential for correct description of biomolecules and their interactions and, hence, is a primary concern in the design of classical force fields. This task is made even more challenging by the fact that the charge distribution of water molecules in liquid is significantly altered by the local environment. To understand how such polarization effects would modify the force fields, we have performed density functional calculations for ion-water clusters using K+ and Ca2+ ions as probes. We find that the dipole moment of water molecules in the first hydration shell decreases with increasing number of waters, which is explained by the suppression of the ions electric field by those of water dipoles. Adding further water beyond the first shell, the dipole moment of the first shell waters increases because water dipoles are strongly polarized in the presence of hydrogen bond acceptors. Thus the net polarization of water in the hydration shell of an ion is determined by two competing effects, of which only one directly depends on the ion. These observations explain why the dipole moment of waters in the first hydration shell of a K+ ion is smaller compared to those in bulk water while the opposite is true for Ca2+ ions and suggest new constraints to be used in the development of polarizable water models.