Dennis R. Howard

Analyzing the Commitment-Loyalty Link in Service Contexts

This study addressed the ill-understood issue of how loyalty develops in service patrons. Although many theorists hold commitment to be an essential part of this process, the link between commitment and loyalty has received little empirical attention. To address this void, the study first portrayed commitment’s root tendency to resist changing preference as a function of three antecedent processes. Second, this portrayal formed the basis for developing a psychometrically sound scale to measure the construct of commitment. Third, the scale was then used in a mediating effects model (M-E-M) to test the commitment-loyalty link. Path analyses found this parsimonious structure to be a significant improvement over rival direct effects models (D-E-Ms). Results found the tendency to resist changing preference to be a key precursor to loyalty, largely explained by a patron’s willingness to identify with a brand. Implications of these findings for loyalty’s development and research are explored.

Developing a tourism impact attitude scale

Abstract A multiple item tourism impact attitude scale (TIAS) was developed in response to the need for standardized measurement of resident attitudes toward tourism development. The scale development process and testing of the scale is described in this paper. The tourism impact literature cites a number of key independent variables that influence attitudes toward tourism. Using the TIAS, a multiple regression model was used to test the effects of these independent variables on resident attitudes toward tourism development in the Columbia River Gorge region of Oregon and Washington, USA. Implications for tourism development and planning are described.

The Loyal Traveler: Examining a Typology of Service Patronage

The first goal of this study was to determine whether Days (1969) measure of loyalty could be extended to better understand travel service patronage. Findings provide clear support that this composite measure, of repeat purchase and loyal attitude, is an effective approach to distinguishing the loyal traveler. A cluster analysis that combined scores on the composite measure from 428 travelers supported a two-dimensional matrix that identified four types of loyalty: true, spurious, latent, and low. This accomplished the studys second purpose by confirming that the four distinct levels of loyalty exist in a variety of service settings. Discriminant analysis was used to achieve the third objective — To identify those characteristics that differentiate the truly loyal patron. The resulting profile found this traveler to be a highly satisfied, symbolically involved consumer drawn to those services that exhibit an empathetic, caring concern for their patrons. These findings generate a much clearer understanding of how service providers can measure and manage their returning patrons.

Loyalty measurement: A critical examination and theoretical extension

Abstract Although the construct of consumer loyalty has received considerable attention in the consumer behavior literature, its recent application to recreation and tourist behavior has not sufficiently addressed several theoretical and methodological issues. Following a critique of loyalty research in the leisure literature, we discuss suggestions for improving both the behavioral and attitudinal components of loyalty measurement. Crosby and Taylors (1983) theory of psychological commitment is proposed as a basis for better operationalizing the attitudinal component of loyalty. This conceptualization describes the psychological phenomena that underlie loyalty to leisure goods and services in terms of preference stability (cognitive consistency) and resistance to change. Adopting this cognitive interpretation would allow leisure researchers to avoid some of the operational difficulties currently evident in consumer loyalty measurement.

The Complex and Dynamic Nature of Leisure Experience

Although leisure experience is characterized as being multi-dimensional, transitory and multi-phased, few empirical studies have explored the complexity and dynamics of leisure experiences. The pur...

Testing an international tourist role typology

Abstract Two decades ago, Cohen proposed a typology of international tourist roles across a novelty-familiarity continuum. His widely cited typology has subsequently been conceptually refined, but has never empirically substantiated. This study developed a reliable and valid attitudinal scale for testing Cohens typology. Three purposive samples were used in a comprehensive item testing and verification process, and another sample helped confirm the dimensionality of the scale. The final 20-item, three dimensional instrument is both reliable and valid. The International Tourist Role Scale (ITR) was effective for operationalizing Cohens typology and may help extend his ground—breaking conceptual work.

Ego involvement and leisure behavior: a conceptual specification.

Numerous theories have been advanced to explain the social psychological attachments between individuals and leisure pursuits. Unfortunately, many of the theories overlap in meaning. Most lack the ...

Who Makes the Decision: the Parent or the Child? The Perceived Influence of Parents and Children On the Purchase of Recreation Services

The role of children in the purchase of public recreation services has been ignored in previous research. Using family decision research as a context, this study examines the relative influence of ...

An analysis of consumer loyalty to municipal recreation programs

Abstract This study of participant loyalty to selected municipal recreation programs emerged from the consumer behavior literature on brand loyalty, applying the concept to a service‐oriented leisure agency. Using a two‐dimensional measure of loyalty, incorporating both a behavioral or repeat purchasing dimension and an attitudinal or commitment dimension, this study found that participants exhibited a high degree of repeat purchasing and only a moderate level of commitment to agency programs. Loyalty segmentation results demonstrated that loyal patrons were more likely to be older and have more agency experience than less loyal participants. Applications of the study to program marketing and to future research are discussed.

Segmenting Travel Markets with the International Tourism Role (ITR) Scale

Although many attempts have been made to segment travel markets, few studies have used conceptually-based, standardized instrumentation. This study illustrates how the International Tourism Role (ITR) scale by Mo, Howard, and Havitz (1993), developed using the conceptual framework of Cohens (1972) tourist role typology, can be used to segment international tourist markets. Cluster analysis of ITR factor scores indicated the 461 respon dents could be classified into four distinct clusters. The clusters were confirmed by selected sociodemographic and behavioral trip characteristic variables. The composition of the clusters partially supported Cohens classification scheme, but also revealed nuances result ingfrom the ITR scales multidimensional interpretation of novelty in international tourism. Although results cannot be generalized beyond the study population, this study shows the potential for segmenting international travel markets with the ITR scale.