Dhirendra K. Simanshu

Structure and function of enzymes involved in the anaerobic degradation of L-threonine to propionate

In Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium, L-threonine is cleaved non-oxidatively to propionate via 2-ketobutyrate by biodegradative threonine deaminase, 2-ketobutyrate formate-lyase (or pyruvate formate-lyase), phosphotransacetylase and propionate kinase. In the anaerobic condition, L-threonine is converted to the energy-rich keto acid and this is subsequently catabolised to produce ATP via substrate-level phosphorylation, providing a source of energy to the cells. Most of the enzymes involved in the degradation of L-threonine to propionate are encoded by the anaerobically regulated tdc operon. In the recent past, extensive structural and biochemical studies have been carried out on these enzymes by various groups. Besides detailed structural and functional insights, these studies have also shown the similarities and differences between the other related enzymes present in the metabolic network. In this paper, we review the structural and biochemical studies carried out on these enzymes.

Crystal Structures of Salmonella typhimurium Biodegradative Threonine Deaminase and Its Complex with CMP Provide Structural Insights into Ligand-induced Oligomerization and Enzyme Activation

Two different pyridoxal 5′-phosphate-containing l-threonine deaminases (EC 4.3.1.19), biosynthetic and biodegradative, which catalyze the deamination of l-threonine to α-ketobutyrate, are present in Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium. Biodegradative threonine deaminase (TdcB) catalyzes the first reaction in the anaerobic breakdown of l-threonine to propionate. TdcB, unlike the biosynthetic threonine deaminase, is insensitive to l-isoleucine and is activated by AMP. In the present study, TdcB from S. typhimurium was cloned and overexpressed in E. coli. In the presence of AMP or CMP, the recombinant enzyme was converted to the tetrameric form accompanied by significant enzyme activation. To provide insights into ligand-mediated oligomerization and enzyme activation, crystal structures of S. typhimurium TdcB and its complex with CMP were determined. In the native structure, TdcB is in a dimeric form, whereas in the TdcB·CMP complex, it exists in a tetrameric form with 222 symmetry and appears as a dimer of dimers. Tetrameric TdcB binds to four molecules of CMP, two at each of the dimer interfaces. Comparison of the dimer structure in the ligand (CMP)-free and -bound forms suggests that the changes induced by ligand binding at the dimer interface are essential for tetramerization. The differences observed in the tertiary and quaternary structures of TdcB in the absence and presence of CMP appear to account for enzyme activation and increased binding affinity for l-threonine. Comparison of TdcB with related pyridoxal 5′-phosphate-dependent enzymes points to structural and mechanistic similarities.

Systematic study on crystal‐contact engineering of diphthine synthase: influence of mutations at crystal‐packing regions on X‐ray diffraction quality

It is well known that protein crystallizability can be influenced by site-directed mutagenesis of residues on the molecular surface of proteins, indicating that the intermolecular interactions in crystal-packing regions may play a crucial role in the structural regularity at atomic resolution of protein crystals. Here, a systematic examination was made of the improvement in the diffraction resolution of protein crystals on introducing a single mutation of a crystal-packing residue in order to provide more favourable packing interactions, using diphthine synthase from Pyrococcus horikoshii OT3 as a model system. All of a total of 21 designed mutants at 13 different crystal-packing residues yielded almost isomorphous crystals from the same crystallization conditions as those used for the wild-type crystals, which diffracted X-rays to 2.1 A resolution. Of the 21 mutants, eight provided crystals with an improved resolution of 1.8 A or better. Thus, it has been clarified that crystal quality can be improved by introducing a suitable single mutation of a crystal-packing residue. In the improved crystals, more intimate crystal-packing interactions than those in the wild-type crystal are observed. Notably, the mutants K49R and T146R yielded crystals with outstandingly improved resolutions of 1.5 and 1.6 A, respectively, in which a large-scale rearrangement of packing interactions was unexpectedly observed despite the retention of the same isomorphous crystal form. In contrast, the mutants that provided results that were in good agreement with the designed putative structures tended to achieve only moderate improvements in resolution of up to 1.75 A. These results suggest a difficulty in the rational prediction of highly effective mutations in crystal engineering.

Crystal structures of Salmonella typhimurium propionate kinase and its complex with Ap4A: Evidence for a novel Ap4A synthetic activity

Propionate kinase catalyses the last step in the anaerobic breakdown of L‐threonine to propionate in which propionyl phosphate and ADP are converted to propionate and ATP. Here we report the structures of propionate kinase (TdcD) in the native form as well as in complex with diadenosine 5′,5′′′‐P1,P4‐tetraphosphate (Ap4A) by X‐ray crystallography. Structure of TdcD obtained after cocrystallization with ATP showed Ap4A bound to the active site pocket suggesting the presence of Ap4A synthetic activity in TdcD. Binding of Ap4A to the enzyme was confirmed by the structure determination of a TdcD‐Ap4A complex obtained after cocrystallization of TdcD with commercially available Ap4A. Mass spectroscopic studies provided further evidence for the formation of Ap4A by propionate kinase in the presence of ATP. In the TdcD‐Ap4A complex structure, Ap4A is present in an extended conformation with one adenosine moiety present in the nucleotide binding site and other in the proposed propionate binding site. These observations tend to support direct in‐line transfer of phosphoryl group during the kinase reaction. Proteins 2008.

Structure of the putative mutarotase YeaD from Salmonella typhimurium: structural comparison with galactose mutarotases.

Salmonella typhimurium YeaD (stYeaD), annotated as a putative aldose 1-epimerase, has a very low sequence identity to other well characterized mutarotases. Sequence analysis suggested that the catalytic residues and a few of the substrate-binding residues of galactose mutarotases (GalMs) are conserved in stYeaD. Determination of the crystal structure of stYeaD in an orthorhombic form at 1.9 A resolution and in a monoclinic form at 2.5 A resolution revealed this protein to adopt the beta-sandwich fold similar to GalMs. Structural comparison of stYeaD with GalMs has permitted the identification of residues involved in catalysis and substrate binding. In spite of the similar fold and conservation of catalytic residues, minor but significant differences were observed in the substrate-binding pocket. These analyses pointed out the possible role of Arg74 and Arg99, found only in YeaD-like proteins, in ligand anchoring and suggested that the specificity of stYeaD may be distinct from those of GalMs.

Mechanistic features of Salmonella typhimurium propionate kinase (TdcD): insights from kinetic and crystallographic studies.

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) play a major role in carbon cycle and can be utilized as a source of carbon and energy by bacteria. Salmonella typhimurium propionate kinase (StTdcD) catalyzes reversible transfer of the γ-phosphate of ATP to propionate during l-threonine degradation to propionate. Kinetic analysis revealed that StTdcD possesses broad ligand specificity and could be activated by various SCFAs (propionate>acetate≈butyrate), nucleotides (ATP≈GTP>CTP≈TTP; dATP>dGTP>dCTP) and metal ions (Mg(2+)≈Mn(2+)>Co(2+)). Inhibition of StTdcD by tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intermediates such as citrate, succinate, α-ketoglutarate and malate suggests that the enzyme could be under plausible feedback regulation. Crystal structures of StTdcD bound to PO4 (phosphate), AMP, ATP, Ap4 (adenosine tetraphosphate), GMP, GDP, GTP, CMP and CTP revealed that binding of nucleotide mainly involves hydrophobic interactions with the base moiety and could account for the broad biochemical specificity observed between the enzyme and nucleotides. Modeling and site-directed mutagenesis studies suggest Ala88 to be an important residue involved in determining the rate of catalysis with SCFA substrates. Molecular dynamics simulations on monomeric and dimeric forms of StTdcD revealed plausible open and closed states, and also suggested role for dimerization in stabilizing segment 235-290 involved in interfacial interactions and ligand binding. Observation of an ethylene glycol molecule bound sufficiently close to the γ-phosphate in StTdcD complexes with triphosphate nucleotides supports direct in-line phosphoryl transfer.

Cloning, expression, purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of propionate kinase (TdcD) from Salmonella typhimurium

In the cell, propionate is mainly formed during beta-oxidation of odd-numbered carbon-chain fatty acids, fermentation of carbohydrates and degradation of the amino acids threonine, valine, isoleucine and methionine. Recently, it has been shown that L-threonine is non-oxidatively cleaved to propionate via 2-ketobutyrate. The last step in this process, conversion of propionyl phosphate and ADP to propionate and ATP, is catalysed by propionate kinase (EC 2.7.1.-). Here, the cloning of propionate kinase (molecular weight 44 kDa) from Salmonella typhimurium with an N-terminal hexahistidine affinity tag and its overexpression in Escherichia coli are reported. Purified propionate kinase was found to cocrystallize with ADP in the hanging-drop vapour-diffusion and microbatch methods. Crystals belong to space group P3(1)21 or P3(2)21, with unit-cell parameters a = b = 111.47, c = 66.52 A. A complete data set to 2.2 A resolution has been collected using an image-plate detector system mounted on a rotating-anode X-ray generator.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray crystallographic analysis of biodegradative threonine deaminase (TdcB) from Salmonella typhimurium

Biodegradative threonine deaminase (TdcB) catalyzes the deamination of L-threonine to alpha-ketobutyrate, the first reaction in the anaerobic breakdown of L-threonine to propionate. Unlike the biosynthetic threonine deaminase, TdcB is insensitive to L-isoleucine and is activated by AMP. Here, the cloning of TdcB (molecular weight 36 kDa) from Salmonella typhimurium with an N-terminal hexahistidine affinity tag and its overexpression in Escherichia coli is reported. TdcB was purified to homogeneity using Ni-NTA affinity column chromatography and crystallized using the hanging-drop vapour-diffusion technique in three different crystal forms. Crystal forms I (unit-cell parameters a = 46.32, b = 55.30, c = 67.24 A, alpha = 103.09, beta = 94.70, gamma = 112.94 degrees) and II (a = 56.68, b = 76.83, c = 78.50 A, alpha = 66.12, beta = 89.16, gamma = 77.08 degrees) belong to space group P1 and contain two and four molecules of TdcB, respectively, in the asymmetric unit. Poorly diffracting form III crystals were obtained in space group C2 and based on the unit-cell volume are most likely to contain one molecule per asymmetric unit. Two complete data sets of resolutions 2.2 A (crystal form I) and 1.7 A (crystal form II) were collected at 100 K using an in-house X-ray source.

Cloning, expression, purification and preliminary X-ray crystallographic studies of 2-methylisocitrate lyase from Salmonella typhimurium

In Salmonella typhimurium, propionate is oxidized to pyruvate via the 2-methylcitric acid cycle. The last step of this cycle, the cleavage of 2-methylisocitrate to succinate and pyruvate, is catalysed by 2-methylisocitrate lyase (EC 4.1.3.30). Methylisocitrate lyase (molecular weight 32 kDa) with a C-terminal polyhistidine affinity tag has been cloned and overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified and crystallized under different conditions using the hanging-drop vapour-diffusion technique. Crystals belong to the orthogonal space group P2(1)2(1)2(1), with unit-cell parameters a = 63.600, b = 100.670, c = 204.745 A. A complete data set to 2.5 A resolution has been collected using an image-plate detector system mounted on a rotating-anode X-ray generator.

Preliminary X-ray crystallographic analysis of 2-methylcitrate synthase from Salmonella typhimurium

Analysis of the genomic sequences of Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium has revealed the presence of several homologues of the well studied citrate synthase (CS). One of these homologues has been shown to code for 2-methylcitrate synthase (2-MCS) activity. 2-MCS catalyzes one of the steps in the 2-methylcitric acid cycle found in these organisms for the degradation of propionate to pyruvate and succinate. In the present work, the gene coding for 2-MCS from S. typhimurium (StPrpC) was cloned in pRSET-C vector and overexpressed in E. coli. The protein was purified to homogeneity using Ni-NTA affinity chromatography. The purified protein was crystallized using the microbatch-under-oil method. The StPrpC crystals diffracted X-rays to 2.4 A resolution and belonged to the triclinic space group P1, with unit-cell parameters a = 92.068, b = 118.159, c = 120.659 A, alpha = 60.84, beta = 67.77, gamma = 81.92 degrees . Computation of rotation functions using the X-ray diffraction data shows that the protein is likely to be a decamer of identical subunits, unlike CSs, which are dimers or hexamers.