Diana Tamayo

Alternative oxidase mediates pathogen resistance in Paracoccidioides brasiliensis infection.

Background Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is a human thermal dimorphic pathogenic fungus. Survival of P. brasiliensis inside the host depends on the adaptation of this fungal pathogen to different conditions, namely oxidative stress imposed by immune cells. Aims and Methodology In this study, we evaluated the role of alternative oxidase (AOX), an enzyme involved in the intracellular redox balancing, during host-P. brasiliensis interaction. We generated a mitotically stable P. brasiliensis AOX (PbAOX) antisense RNA (aRNA) strain with a 70% reduction in gene expression. We evaluated the relevance of PbAOX during interaction of conidia and yeast cells with IFN-γ activated alveolar macrophages and in a mouse model of infection. Additionally, we determined the fungal cells viability and PbAOX in the presence of H2O2. Results Interaction with IFN-γ activated alveolar macrophages induced higher levels of PbAOX gene expression in PbWt conidia than PbWt yeast cells. PbAOX-aRNA conidia and yeast cells had decreased viability after interaction with macrophages. Moreover, in a mouse model of infection, we showed that absence of wild-type levels of PbAOX in P. brasiliensis results in a reduced fungal burden in lungs at weeks 8 and 24 post-challenge and an increased survival rate. In the presence of H2O2, we observed that PbWt yeast cells increased PbAOX expression and presented a higher viability in comparison with PbAOX-aRNA yeast cells. Conclusions These data further support the hypothesis that PbAOX is important in the fungal defense against oxidative stress imposed by immune cells and is relevant in the virulence of P. brasiliensis.

A 32-Kilodalton Hydrolase Plays an Important Role in Paracoccidioides brasiliensis Adherence to Host Cells and Influences Pathogenicity

ABSTRACT One of the most crucial events during infection with the dimorphic fungus Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is adhesion to pulmonary epithelial cells, a pivotal step in the establishment of disease. In this study, we have evaluated the relevance of a 32-kDa protein, a putative adhesion member of the haloacid dehalogenase (HAD) superfamily of hydrolases, in the virulence of this fungus. Protein sequence analyses have supported the inclusion of PbHad32p as a hydrolase and have revealed a conserved protein only among fungal dimorphic and filamentous pathogens that are closely phylogenetically related. To evaluate its role during the host-pathogen interaction, we have generated mitotically stable P. brasiliensis HAD32 (PbHAD32) antisense RNA (aRNA) strains with consistently reduced gene expression. Knockdown of PbHAD32 did not alter cell vitality or viability but induced morphological alterations in yeast cells. Moreover, yeast cells with reduced PbHAD32 expression were significantly affected in their capacity to adhere to human epithelial cells and presented decreased virulence in a mouse model of infection. These data support the hypothesis that PbHad32p binds to extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins and modulates the initial immune response for evasion of host defenses. Our findings point to PbHAD32 as a novel virulence factor active during the initial interaction with host cells in P. brasiliensis.

Inhibition of PbGP43 expression may suggest that gp43 is a virulence factor in Paracoccidioides brasiliensis

Glycoprotein gp43 is an immunodominant diagnostic antigen for paracoccidioidomycosis caused by Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. It is abundantly secreted in isolates such as Pb339. It is structurally related to beta-1,3-exoglucanases, however inactive. Its function in fungal biology is unknown, but it elicits humoral, innate and protective cellular immune responses; it binds to extracellular matrix-associated proteins. In this study we applied an antisense RNA (aRNA) technology and Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation to generate mitotically stable PbGP43 mutants (PbGP43 aRNA) derived from wild type Pb339 to study its role in P. brasiliensis biology and during infection. Control PbEV was transformed with empty vector. Growth curve, cell vitality and morphology of PbGP43 aRNA mutants were indistinguishable from those of controls. PbGP43 expression was reduced 80–85% in mutants 1 and 2, as determined by real time PCR, correlating with a massive decrease in gp43 expression. This was shown by immunoblotting of culture supernatants revealed with anti-gp43 mouse monoclonal and rabbit polyclonal antibodies, and also by affinity-ligand assays of extracellular molecules with laminin and fibronectin. In vitro, there was significantly increased TNF-α production and reduced yeast recovery when PbGP43 aRNA1 was exposed to IFN-γ-stimulated macrophages, suggesting reduced binding/uptake and/or increased killing. In vivo, fungal burden in lungs of BALB/c mice infected with silenced mutant was negligible and associated with decreased lung ΙΛ−10 and IL-6. Therefore, our results correlated low gp43 expression with lower pathogenicity in mice, but that will be definitely proven when PbGP43 knockouts become available. This is the first study of gp43 using genetically modified P. brasiliensis.

Involvement of the 90 kDa heat shock protein during adaptation of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis to different environmental conditions.

HSP90 is a molecular chaperone that participates in folding, stabilization, activation, and assembly of several proteins, all of which are key regulators in cell signaling. In dimorphic pathogenic fungi such as Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, the adaptation to a higher temperature, acid pH and oxidative stress, is an essential event for fungal survival and also for the establishing of the infectious process. To further understand the role of this protein, we used antisense RNA technology to generate a P. brasiliensis isolate with reduced PbHSP90 gene expression (PbHSP90-aRNA). Reduced expression of HSP90 decreased yeast cell viability during batch culture growth and increased susceptibility to acid pH environments and imposed oxidative stress. Also, PbHSP90-aRNA yeast cells presented reduced viability upon interaction with macrophages. The findings presented here suggest a protective role for HSP90 during adaptation to hostile environments, one that promotes survival of the fungus during host-pathogen interactions.

The hydrolase PbHAD32 participates in the adherence of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis conidia to epithelial lung cells

Adherence of the dimorphic pathogenic fungus Paracoccidioides brasiliensis to lung epithelial cells is considered an essential event for the establishment of infection. We have previously shown that the PbHAD32 hydrolase is important in this early stage of the host-P. brasiliensis yeast cells interaction. The aim of this study was to further elucidate the role of PbHAD32 in conidial thermodimorphism and their interaction with lung epithelial cells. Analysis of the PbHAD32 gene expression revealed higher mRNA levels during the conidia to mycelia (C-M) germination when compared to the conidia to yeast (C-Y) transition. Moreover, PbHAD32 was consistently expressed at higher levels upon infection of lung epithelial cells, but to a greater extent when conidia germinated to produce mycelia. Interestingly, at this particular transitional stage, more conidia adhered to epithelial cells than when they were transiting to the yeast form. Altogether our data further corroborates the importance of PbHAD32 during initial adherence to host cells and suggest that the 32-KDa hydrolase may also participate at different stages of the C-M and C-Y conversions.

Identification and Analysis of the Role of Superoxide Dismutases Isoforms in the Pathogenesis of Paracoccidioides spp.

The ability of Paracoccidioides to defend itself against reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by host effector cells is a prerequisite to survive. To counteract these radicals, Paracoccidioides expresses, among different antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutases (SODs). In this study, we identified six SODs isoforms encoded by the Paracoccidioides genome. We determined gene expression levels of representative isolates of the phylogenetic lineages of Paracoccidioides spp. (S1, PS2, PS3 and Pb01-like) using quantitative RT-PCR. Assays were carried out to analyze SOD gene expression of yeast cells, mycelia cells, the mycelia-to-yeast transition and the yeast-to-mycelia germination, as well as under treatment with oxidative agents and during interaction with phagocytic cells. We observed an increased expression of PbSOD1 and PbSOD3 during the transition process, exposure to oxidative agents and interaction with phagocytic cells, suggesting that these proteins could assist in combating the superoxide radicals generated during the host-pathogen interaction. Using PbSOD1 and PbSOD3 knockdown strains we showed these genes are involved in the response of the fungus against host effector cells, particularly the oxidative stress response, and in a mouse model of infection. Protein sequence analysis together with functional analysis of knockdown strains seem to suggest that PbSOD3 expression is linked with a pronounced extracellular activity while PbSOD1 seems more related to intracellular requirements of the fungus. Altogether, our data suggests that P. brasiliensis actively responds to the radicals generated endogenously during metabolism and counteracts the oxidative burst of immune cells by inducing the expression of SOD isoforms.

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis PbP27 gene: knockdown procedures and functional characterization

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis PbP27 gene encodes a protein localized in both the fungal cytoplasm and cell wall. The parasitic infectious form produces this protein preferentially with the genes expression varying between the fungus phylogenetic species. The biological function of the native p27 has yet to be determined during either growth of the yeast or host infection. Therefore, in this study, through the use of antisense RNA technology and Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation, we generated mitotically stable PbP27 mutants (PbP27 aRNA) with the goal to evaluate the role of p27 in the biology and virulence of this fungus. PbP27 expression was reduced 60-75% in mutants, as determined by real-time PCR in correlation with a decrease in p27 expression. No alterations in the growth curve or in the ability to shift from mycelia to yeast or from yeast to mycelia were observed in PbP27 aRNA strains; however, we did observe a reduction in cell vitality. Moreover, a decrease in cell viability of PbP27 aRNA yeast cells after interaction with IFN-γ-stimulated macrophages was detected. Based on these results, we propose that p27 plays a role in yeast cell architecture and represents one of the mechanisms employed by this fungus for its interaction with the monocyte/macrophage system.

Paracoccidioides spp. catalases and their role in antioxidant defense against host defense responses

Dimorphic human pathogenic fungi interact with host effector cells resisting their microbicidal mechanisms. Yeast cells are able of surviving within the tough environment of the phagolysosome by expressing an antioxidant defense system that provides protection against host-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS). This includes the production of catalases (CATs). Here we identified and analyzed the role of CAT isoforms in Paracoccidioides, the etiological agent of paracoccidioidomycosis. Firstly, we found that one of these isoforms was absent in the closely related dimorphic pathogen Coccidioides and dermatophytes, but all of them were conserved in Paracoccidioides, Histoplasma and Blastomyces species. We probed the contribution of CATs in Paracoccidioides by determining the gene expression levels of each isoform through quantitative RT-qPCR, in both the yeast and mycelia phases, and during the morphological switch (transition and germination), as well as in response to oxidative agents and during interaction with neutrophils. PbCATP was preferentially expressed in the pathogenic yeast phase, and was associated to the response against exogenous H2O2. Therefore, we created and analyzed the virulence defects of a knockdown strain for this isoform, and found that CATP protects yeast cells from H2O2 generated in vitro and is relevant during lung infection. On the other hand, CATA and CATB seem to contribute to ROS homeostasis in Paracoccidioides cells, during endogenous oxidative stress. CAT isoforms in Paracoccidioides might be coordinately regulated during development and dimorphism, and differentially expressed in response to different stresses to control ROS homeostasis during the infectious process, contributing to the virulence of Paracoccidioides.

Decreased expression of 14-3-3 in Paracoccidioides brasiliensis confirms its involvement in fungal pathogenesis

The interaction between the fungal pathogen Paracoccidioides brasiliensis and host cells is usually mediated by specific binding events between adhesins on the fungal surface and receptors on the host extracellular matrix or cell surface. One molecule implicated in the P. brasiliensis-host interaction is the 14-3-3 protein. The 14-3-3 protein belongs to a family of conserved regulatory molecules that are expressed in all eukaryotic cells and are involved in diverse cellular functions. Here, we investigated the relevance of the 14-3-3 protein to the virulence of P. brasiliensis. Using antisense RNA technology and Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation, we generated a 14-3-3-silenced strain (expression reduced by ˜55%). This strain allowed us to investigate the interaction between 14-3-3 and the host and to correlate the functions of P. brasiliensis 14-3-3 with cellular features, such as morphological characteristics and virulence, that are important for pathogenesis.

Alternative oxidase plays an important role in Paracoccidioides brasiliensis cellular homeostasis and morphological transition

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is the etiologic agent of one of the most common systemic mycoses in Latin America. As a dimorphic fungus, it must adapt to different environments during its life cycle, either in nature or within the host, enduring external stresses such as temperature or host-induced oxidative stress. In this study we addressed the role of alternative oxidase (PbAOX) in cellular homeostasis during batch culture growth and the morphological transition of P. brasiliensis. Using a PbAOX-antisense-RNA (PbAOX-aRNA) strain with a 70% reduction in gene expression, we show that PbAOX is crucial for maintaining cell viability and vitality during batch culture growth of yeast cells, in what appears to be a pH-dependent manner. We also show that silencing of PbAOX drastically reduced expression levels of other detoxifying enzymes (PbY20 and PbMSOD). In addition, our data indicate that PbAOX plays a role during the morphological transition, namely, during the yeast-to-mycelia germination and mycelia/conidia-to-yeast transition, essential events during the establishment of infection by dimorphic fungal pathogens. Altogether, our findings support the hypothesis that PbAOX is important for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis, possibly by assisting redox balancing during cell growth and the morphological switch of P. brasiliensis.