Diane L. Gill

Development of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire

Abstract The Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) was developed as a multidimensional, sport-specific measure of individual differences in sport achievement orientation. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed a stable, three-factor structure across three separate samples of university and high school students. The three separate but related subscales of competitiveness, win, and goal orientation demonstrate high internal consistency and stability over time. The SOQ competitiveness score differentiates students in competitive activities from those in noncompetitive activities, providing evidence for construct validity. The overall factor stability, reliability and validity evidence suggests that the SOQ can be a valuable measure for the investigation of competitiveness and achievement behavior in sport and exercise settings.

What Goes around Comes around: Re-Emerging Themes in Sport and Exercise Psychology.

Sport and exercise psychology research appearing in Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (RQES) over the past 75 years can be characterized by re-emerging themes—hot topics in the 1930s remain hot topics now. Re-emerging themes include sportsmanship/moral development, social development/significant others, self-perceptions, attitudes/motivation, modeling/observational learning, emotion/arousal/anxiety, competition/achievement orientations, and gender roles. Although research paradigms and methodologies have changed, these topics have endured. We also identified dominant emergent themes appearing in RQES over the last 25 years: measurement development and validation; physical activity adoption and adherence; and multidisciplinary approaches to psychological issues. Given the many specialty journals and trends toward integrating models and methods from multiple disciplines, we suggest that RQES adopt a multidisciplinary focus for research in the field of kinesiology.

Competitiveness among females and males in physical activity classes.

Competitive orientations of 237 male and female undergraduates enrolled in competitive and noncompetitive physical activity classes were investigated using the Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire [WOFO: R. L. Helmreich and J. T. Spence, “The Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire: An Objective Instrument to Assess Components of Achievement Motivation and Attitudes Toward Family and Career,” Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 1978, 8(2) (Document #1677)] and a Competitiveness Inventory. Factor analysis confirmed the four WOFO dimensions proposed by Helmreich and Spence (mastery, work, competitiveness, personal unconcern). Factor analysis of the Competitiveness Inventory revealed three factors termed competitiveness, goal orientation, and win orientation. Sex × Activity Class (competitive or noncompetitive) (2 × 2) multivariate analyses revealed sex differences on the WOFO scores, both sex and activity differences on the Competitiveness Inventory scores, and no interactions. Sex differences on the WOFO scores confirmed Spence and Helmreichs findings; females scored higher on work and males scored higher on competitiveness. On the Competitiveness Inventory, males scored slightly higher than females on competitiveness, but most of the multivariate sex difference was due to males scoring higher on win orientation and females scoring higher on goal orientation. In contrast, the multivariate activity difference was due primarily to competitiveness; students in competitive activities scored considerably higher on competitiveness than students in noncompetitive activities. The findings suggest that sport-achievement orientation has a unique factor structure and provide evidence supporting the validity of the sport-specific, multidimensional Competitiveness Inventory.

An examination of personal/situational variables, stress appraisal, and burnout in collegiate teacher-coaches.

Following Smiths (1986) cognitive-affective model of stress and burnout in athletics, this investigation examined (a) the relationship of personal/situational variables (social support, gender, and years of experience) to stress appraisal and (b) the relationship of stress appraisal (perceived stress, coaching issues, and role conflict) to burnout. Male (n = 99) and female (n = 115) teacher-head basketball coaches from NCAA Division III and NAIA colleges completed established measures of burnout, perceived stress, teacher-coach role conflict, and social support and a measure of coaching issues developed for this study. Multivariate analyses supported the hypothesized relationships. Specifically, greater satisfaction with social support, less experience, and gender (females higher) were related to stress appraisal, and all stress appraisal variables were positively related to burnout. Contrary to previous studies, these teacher-coaches reported moderate to high levels of burnout.

A sport and exercise psychology perspective on stress.

My purpose is to introduce the psychological perspective (or perspectives) on stress. In doing so, I will focus on conceptual models or frameworks that guide sport and exercise psychology work on stress, leaving the details of the research findings and implications to the later papers (Berger, 1994; Dishman, 1994; Wrisberg, 1994). Rather than detailed research, this paper presents a framework or context for those subsequent papers.

Perceived Physical Competence, Enjoyment and Effort in Same-Sex and Coeducational Physical Education Classes.

Perceived competence is a key motivational determinant of physical activity behaviours in adolescents, and motivational determinants are influenced by the class environment. The purpose of this study was to investigate levels of perceived physical competence, enjoyment and effort in class, focusing on gender and class‐type differences. Participants were 546 adolescents (289 males, 257 females) who were in same‐sex or coeducational physical education classes. The Hierarchical Physical Competence Scale (HPCS) and questionnaire measures of enjoyment and effort in classes were used to investigate students’ perceptions. Results of 2 × 2 multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicated that students’ perceptions of physical competence, enjoyment and effort in classes differed according to gender and class type, but these differences must be viewed in light of strong interaction effects. That is, female students reported more positive and adaptive perceptions in same‐sex classes and were more affected by class type than were male students.

State Anxiety among Successful and Unsuccessful Competitors Who Differ in Competitive Trait Anxiety

Abstract The construct validity of SCAT was investigated by testing the hypothesis that persons high in competitive A-trait respond in competitive situations with higher levels of A-state than persons low in competitive A-trait. In addition, the study determined how success-failure affected A-state levels before, midway, and after a 20-game competition with a simulated opponent on a motor maze task. A sex × SCAT × success-failure (2 × 2 × 4) factorial design was used. Males and females who were either high or low in SCAT were randomly assigned to one of four success-failure conditions (win 80% of the games, win 50% of the games, win 20% of the games, or a noncompetition control). A-state scores were obtained initially in a noncompetitive situation, just prior to competing, midway through competition, and after competing. The results provided clear support for the construct validity of SCAT. In addition, A-state levels increased as the number of games won decreased. SCAT and success-failure both significan...

Integration: The key to sustaining kinesiology in higher education.

Integration is the key to sustaining kinesiology as an academic and professional discipline in higher education. Following the vision of Amy Morris Homans, this paper focuses on integration in three ways. First, integration of our multidisciplinary scholarship, with a clear focus on physical activity, is essential to sustaining kinesiology as a unique scholarly area in higher education. Second, integration of academic scholarship and professional practice is essential to sustaining kinesiology as a scholarly profession. Finally, integration implies an active commitment to inclusion and public service, and that is critical to give meaning and relevance to kinesiology. At its best, kinesiology is an integrative professional discipline that serves the public by promoting health and well-being for all through physical activity. All forms of integration are integral to sustaining kinesiology in higher education.

Age before beauty: An exploration of body image in African-American and Caucasian adult women.

Research on body image emphasizes risks for eating disorders and typically involves young, Caucasian women. Few studies examine body image beyond the college years and there appears to be a disregard for the mature woman, as if self-acceptance of ones body is part of the aging process. Historically, it has been assumed that race is a protective factor against body dissatisfaction due to the perceived larger body ideal for women of color. Drawing upon interviews with Caucasian and African-American women from 20 to 80 years of age, this article explores body image across the lifespan. This analysis revealed that African-American and Caucasian women of all ages engage in private self-monitoring of their bodies and use strategies such as exercise, controlling food intake and cosmetic surgery to try and change the shape of their bodies. Therefore, it is evident that women across age and race categories are vulnerable to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors. Regardless of race, even mature women recognize and respond to societal expectations of beauty and femininity.

Perceived barriers to physical activity across Norwegian adult age groups, gender and stages of change

This study investigated differences in the type of and number of perceived barriers to engagement in physical activity experienced by adult women and men in the same geographical area, the relationship between the experienced barriers and stages of change in relation to exercise behavior, and identified barriers related to reported engagement in leisure‐time physical activity. Data were obtained from a population study by the National Institute of Public Health in two counties during 2000–2001. The sample consisted of 2709 females and 2212 men in the age groups 75, 60, 45, 40 and 30 years. Questionnaires measured barriers to engagement in physical activity, engagement in physical activity and readiness for engaging in physical activity (stages of change). Multivariate analyses of variance demonstrated significant age and gender differences in the perceptions of barriers at the various stages of change. The logistic regressions [estimated odds ratios (OR)] demonstrated that low scores for affective/cognitive and practical barriers were significantly associated with higher OR for engagement in physical activity for women, and low‐priority barriers and lower age were associated with higher OR for being physically active for men. The information from this study should be valuable for designing and tailoring both motivational strategies and interventions to fit targeted groups.