Kathleen Williams

Developmental Sequences for Hopping over Distance: A Prelongitudinal Screening

Abstract Proposed developmental steps for hopping for distance (Roberton & Halverson, 1977) in two movement components (arm and leg action) were tested using a prelongitudinal screening technique (Roberton, Williams, & Langendorfer, 1980) for determining their comprehensiveness and developmental accuracy. Seventy-two children, ranging in age from two through five years (24–71 months), were tested for the study. The leg action developmental steps included all observed leg movements in the preschool sample and were accepted as comprehensive. The proposed arm action component required modification to accommodate all observed arm movements before it was accepted as comprehensive. The leg action component was properly ordered, supporting developmental accuracy. Again, additional modifications were necessary in the arm actions before the steps were properly sequenced. In contrast to previous studies which claimed that most children exhibited “mature” hopping behaviors by 5 years of age, these children were clas...

Developmental Sequences for Catching a Small Ball: A Prelongitudinal Screening

Developmental sequences are identified for many skills (e.g., hopping and throwing). Sequences are hypothesized but not validated for catching. Two purposes of this investigation were to validate hypothesized catching sequences and examine the importance of task constraints on catching performance. Seventy-two subjects (5-12 years of age) were videotaped as they attempted to catch a small (10-cm) ball, tossed to three locations: (a) directly to the body, (b) at the forehead, and (c) to various other locations. Trials were categorized using developmental sequences including four components: arm preparation, arm reception, hands, and body. The data were analyzed by catching condition using the prelongitudinal screening procedure described by Roberton, Williams, and Langendorfer (1980). Preliminary screening resulted in clarification of descriptions for several developmental levels. Movement sequences for hand and body components were comprehensive and age-related for the groups studied. Task conditions differently constrained children of different ages. Arm components did not meet the Roberton et al. criteria. Combining them may be warranted. Varying ball size or type is needed to test the comprehensiveness of the proposed sequences for other catching skills.

THE AGING MOVER: A PRELIMINARY REPORT· ON CONSTRAINTS TO ACTION'"

Locomotion by older adults is typically characterized by performance declines. Older individuals walk more slowly, take shorter steps, and spend a longer time in support than young individuals. Investigators assumed implicitly that declines are related to an inevitable aging process. The purpose of this investigation was to examine constraints that might result in the declines described, outside or in addition to, the general process of aging. We examined two types of terrain over which locomotion might occur, level ground and stairs, and two movement speeds, preferred and fast. Healthy, active females between twenty to eighty years were videotaped. Individuals over sixty years walked at significantly slower speeds, particularly climbing stairs. They used a smaller range of speeds than younger individuals. Despite this slowing, the pattern of coordination between limbs remained essentially the same across the ages tested. The small magnitude of declines observed was attributed to the good health and active lifestyles of these individuals.

Multidimensional correlates of falls in older women

Older women who had fallen within the last year (n = 63) were compared with those who had not fallen (n = 67) on several psychological and motor measures. Both fallers and nonfallers demonstrated high levels of functioning. Discriminant analysis results indicated that a combination of variables, including physical activity and both psychological (general well-being, self-efficacy) and motor (functional reach, mobility) measures differentiated fallers and nonfallers. Results suggest that falling is a multidimensional phenomenon, that small declines on multiple factors may increase risk of falls, and that multifaceted interventions may help maintain high levels of functioning and prevent declines often associated with increased age.

Physical activity and psychological well- being in older women.

Physical activity clearly has benefits for the health and well-being of women and men of all ages, and activity may well be particularly beneficial for older individuals. Physical gains and health benefits of activity are well documented, and physical activity is identified as a health promotion priority area by the U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services.

Changes in Throwing by Older Adults: A Longitudinal Investigation

This investigation examined change in a motor pattern requiring multisegmented coordination in older adults. The overarm throw was observed longitudinally in 8 elderly individuals over 7 years. Data were evaluated using Robertons (Roberton & Halverson, 1984) movement components. Contrasting the assumed pattern of aging, only small declines in movement form were observed. Individual cases revealed additional, noncategorizable declines within component categories, including slower movement speed and decreased range of motion. Increased trial-to-trial variability also was associated with change. These changes suggested that elderly participants coordinated their movements in a manner similar to younger participants but controlled them differently. The small changes observed in this investigation suggest that performance, at least for some skills, is more stable than traditionally assumed.

A home-based intervention to improve balance, gait and self-confidence in older women.

Abstract Much of the current research focusing on the physical function of the elderly involves closely monitored interventions in group settings. Although home-based programs might be more appropriate for many older adults, little research is available. In this investigation, the authors tested a home-based exercise program targeting balance and mobility, and assessed concomitant changes in psychological well-being in healthy, active elderly. Twenty women (M age = 83.2 years, range = 73-92 years) volunteered, with 6 non-exercise controls, 7 completing the 8-week program, and 7 dropping out. The three groups did not differ on any measures at pre-test. At post-test, exercisers and non-exercisers did not differ on balance, mobility, or psychological measures, but differences for preferred walking speed and step length approached significance. Pre-post comparisons indicated that exercisers significantly increased their activity levels, walked faster and were stronger following the intervention. Although large differences did not occur for outcome measures, participants reported that the training tasks were helpful. They became more proficient and confident, and provided useful information for modifying the tasks and improving efficacy of the training. Results suggest that home-based interventions have potential for improving and maintaining physical function in elderly adults.

THROWING PATTERNS OF OLDER ADULTS: A FOLLOW -UP INVESTIGATION·

Previous investigations of the movement patterns of older adults have focused on functional movements. Performance declines have been reported with increasing age. Many investigations, however, do not require older adults to perform maximal, force producing actions. Smaller declines might be observed if older adults made a maximal effort. This investigation examined changes in a maximal skill—the overarm throw for force. Active, older adults were videotaped as they threw tennis balls. Thirteen people were filmed for two consecutive years. Gender and age differences were examined for movement patterns, ball velocity, and selected kinematic measures. Participants threw using patterns and velocities generally observed in children in middle elementary-school years. This result suggested there was a decline in this force production skill. Some older adults regressed in the movement patterns they used over the two years of testing. Older males threw faster, using more advanced movement patterns than older females.

Balance and Mobility Training for Older Adults: An Undergraduate Service-Learning Experience

all-related injuries result in billions of dollars in healthcare F costs each year. Ninety percent of the hip fractures and 50 percent of the vertebral fractures reported each year occur as a result of falls. Over the past decade, numerous balance-training intervention programs have been shown to decrease fall rates among older adults (e.g., Buchner et al., 1997; Close et al., 1999). Although it is unlikely that falls can be avoided altogether, decreasing the number of falls that occur is a sure means of decreasing the alarming cost of healthcare in this country. With this goal in mind, we began a service-learning program at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro (UNCG), in the spring of 1999, aimed at improving balance and mobility in a group of older adults while giving students an opportunity to interact with this segment of the population. Service-learning is a means of “combining authentic community service with integrated academic outcomes” (Erickson & Anderson, 1997, p. 1) and is used increasingly as a way to enhance the meaning of learning experiences for students at all levels of the educational process. Faculty in high schools, colleges, and universities infuse service-learning opportunities into their curricula as a way of connecting institutions to communities and adding “hands-on” experiences to traditional lectureand laboratorybased curricula (Floyd, 1998; Harris, 1996; Moore & Sandholtz, 1999). Sigmon (1994) described four general types of service-learning programs. In “service-LEARNING programs, learning is the primary goal, and service is of secondary importance. The typical internship and clinical programs found in most universities fall into this category. “SERVICElearning” programs, however, emphasize the service component, while “SERVICE-LEARNING programs view both aspects as equally important. Sigmon also described “service-learning” programs in which each component is independent, and there is no explicit intention that participation in one will inform the other. The goal of our UNCG program is SERVICE-LEARNING, where students use information from classroom lectures and laboratories to guide their hands-on community work. Over the past several years, UNCG faculty have offered students a range of servicelearning opportunities to enhance instruction and strengthen links between the university and the community. The university’s mission statement, which was revised in 1998, states that the university “will expand its outreach in the Piedmont Triad [the UNCG community], the State of North Carolina, and beyond” (UNCG, 1998). In the Department of Exercise and Sport Science, graduate and undergraduate students participate in a range of programs where they use Sports to teach elementary and middle jchool students about conflict-resolution strategies (Martinek, McLaughlin, & Schilling, 1999). Furthermore, high jchool students, with the guidance of university faculty and students, act as mentors for some of the elementary jchool children. In another program, undergraduate students work with underserved youths at boys’ and girls’ clubs (Harris, 1996). Our program is a service-learning opportunity for students enrolled in a required undergraduate motor-development course. Most of these students are exercise and sport science (ESS) majors who intend to pursue careers in physical education, fitness leadership, and the allied health professions. Nearly two-thirds of the ESS majors are planning to begin their careers in an allied health profession; since elderly Americans are the fastest growing portion of the U.S. population, many of these students will be working with the elderly after graduation. We started this program because we had been contacted by the director of an independent living center in Greensboro who did not have the resources to hire an on-site activities

Age and function differences in shared task performance: walking and talking.

Everyday activity often involves performing two or more simultaneous actions. Common examples are carrying groceries while walking, monitoring traffic while crossing the street, and walking while talking to another person. In older adults, simultaneous performance of two tasks has been shown to lead to performance declines in one or both tasks (Lundin-Olsson, Nyberg, & Gustafson, 1997; Woollacott & Shumway-Cook, 2002). Much of the previous research focused on shared and dual task performance in individuals with cognitive challenges or at risk for falls. Lundin-Olsson and colleagues (1997) found that older adults with a history of falls were unable to carry on a conversation while walking. These individuals tended to stop walking in order to talk with a companion. More recently, Sparrow, Bradshaw, Lamoureux, and Tirosh (2002) determined that increased attentional demands during gait, such as talking, increased reaction time. Increased reaction time during gait may predispose older adults to falls due to a decreased ability to avoid environmental changes, such as circumventing obstacles in their paths. ShumwayCook and colleagues (1997) found that individuals with a history of two or more recent falls swayed more during quiet stance than nonfallers as they completed a series of simultaneous cognitive tasks. Investigating the demands of simultaneous static balance and cognitive tasks has demonstrated the attention-demanding nature of even quiet stance. There have been fewer investigations of shared performance of dynamic tasks; it is equally important to determine the impact of the changing demands of these tasks on older adults. As noted previously, Lundin-Olsson and colleagues (1997) determined that older adults with a history of falls were unable to perform two tasks simultaneously. Many participants in their investigation were cognitively impaired, were depressed, or had had a stroke. Bowen and colleagues (2001) also reported gait changes among older adults recovering from stroke. Velocity decreased and double-support time increased, when these individuals attempted a simultaneous cognitive task. Other investigators have examined dual-task performance in healthy older adults. Chen and colleagues (1996) found that errors increased in both younger and older participants who responded to a visual reaction-time stimulus while walking and attempting to avoid a virtual object. The magnitude of increase was greater for the older adults. Other researchers suggested that a dual task situation requiring memorization also significantly impacts performing a secondary task, including walking over level surfaces. Additionally, there is evidence that cognitive tasks increase alterations in motor performance with increased age (Li, Lindenberger, Freund, & Baltes, 2001; Lindenberger, Marsiske, & Baltes, 2000). Less is known about the effects of normal aging on speech output than other motor actions, because studies of communication integrity have focused on voice production and linguistic parameters rather than speech production characteristics. Studies investigating Age and Function Differences in Shared Task Performance: Walking and Talking