Dirk van Dierendonck

Servant Leadership: A Review and Synthesis:

Servant leadership is positioned as a new field of research for leadership scholars. This review deals with the historical background of servant leadership, its key characteristics, the available measurement tools, and the results of relevant studies that have been conducted so far. An overall conceptual model of servant leadership is presented. It is argued that leaders who combine their motivation to lead with a need to serve display servant leadership. Personal characteristics and culture are positioned alongside the motivational dimension. Servant leadership is demonstrated by empowering and developing people; by expressing humility, authenticity, interpersonal acceptance, and stewardship; and by providing direction. A high-quality dyadic relationship, trust, and fairness are expected to be the most important mediating processes to encourage self-actualization, positive job attitudes, performance, and a stronger organizational focus on sustainability and corporate social responsibility.Servant leadership is positioned as a new field of research for leadership scholars. This review deals with the historical background of servant leadership, its key characteristics, the available measurement tools, and the results of relevant studies that have been conducted so far. An overall conceptual model of servant leadership is presented. It is argued that leaders who combine their motivation to lead with a need to serve display servant leadership. Personal characteristics and culture are positioned alongside the motivational dimension. Servant leadership is demonstrated by empowering and developing people; by expressing humility, authenticity, interpersonal acceptance, and stewardship; and by providing direction. A high-quality dyadic relationship, trust, and fairness are expected to be the most important mediating processes to encourage self-actualization, positive job attitudes, performance, and a stronger organizational focus on sustainability and corporate social responsibility.

The construct validity of Ryff's Scales of Psychological Well-being and its extension with spiritual well-being

Abstract This study examined the factorial and content validity of Ryffs Scales of Psychological Well-being (SPWB) in a sample of psychology students (N=233) and a sample of professionals from a diverse occupational background (N=420). The psychometric quality of the SPWB was tested for the versions with 3-items, 9-items and 14-items. It appeared that the factorial validity was only acceptable for the 3-items per scale version. However, the internal consistency of these 3-items scales was below generally accepted levels. Therefore, it is suggested to reduce the length of the 14-item scales to 6, 7 or 8 items, depending on the specific subscale. This resulted in an improved overall psychometric quality. In addition, two new scales were developed that together refer to spiritual well-being. A second order factor analysis, including vitality, happiness, self-esteem and the Big Five personality dimensions, revealed four underlying dimensions of positive psychological health: subjective well-being, self-actualization, interpersonal relations and autonomy.

The Servant Leadership Survey: Development and Validation of a Multidimensional Measure

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to describe the development and validation of a multi-dimensional instrument to measure servant leadership.Design/Methodology/ApproachBased on an extensive literature review and expert judgment, 99 items were formulated. In three steps, using eight samples totaling 1571 persons from The Netherlands and the UK with a diverse occupational background, a combined exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis approach was used. This was followed by an analysis of the criterion-related validity.FindingsThe final result is an eight-dimensional measure of 30 items: the eight dimensions being: standing back, forgiveness, courage, empowerment, accountability, authenticity, humility, and stewardship. The internal consistency of the subscales is good. The results show that the Servant Leadership Survey (SLS) has convergent validity with other leadership measures, and also adds unique elements to the leadership field. Evidence for criterion-related validity came from studies relating the eight dimensions to well-being and performance.ImplicationsWith this survey, a valid and reliable instrument to measure the essential elements of servant leadership has been introduced.Originality/ValueThe SLS is the first measure where the underlying factor structure was developed and confirmed across several field studies in two countries. It can be used in future studies to test the underlying premises of servant leadership theory. The SLS provides a clear picture of the key servant leadership qualities and shows where improvements can be made on the individual and organizational level; as such, it may also offer a valuable starting point for training and leadership development.

The evaluation of an individual burnout intervention program : The role of inequity and social support

This study evaluated a 5-week, group-based burnout intervention program among direct-care professionals working with mentally disabled individuals. Equity theory was used as the theoretical framework. The main objective of the program was to reduce perceptions of inequity in the relationship with the organization and with the recipients of care by increasing the fit between the professionals goals and expectations and the actual work situation. One experimental group and 2 control groups participated. All 3 groups filled out 3 questionnaires: before the program started, 6 months later, and 1 year later. Individual absenteeism rates were assessed for 1 year before and after the program. Results showed that in the experimental group burnout, absence, and deprived feelings diminished compared with the control groups. The most profound effects were among participants who could draw on social resources to benefit from the intervention.

Leadership behavior and subordinate well-being

The authors used a longitudinal design to investigate the relation between leadership behavior and the well-being of subordinates. Well-being is conceptualized as peoples feelings about themselves and the settings in which they live and work. Staff members (N = 562) of 2 Community Trusts participated 4 times in a 14-month period. Five models were formulated to answer 2 questions: What is the most likely direction of the relation between leadership and well-being, and what is the time frame of this relation? The model with the best fit suggested that leadership behavior and subordinate responses are linked in a feedback loop. Leadership behavior at Time 1 influenced leadership behavior at Time 4. Subordinate well-being at Time 2 synchronously influenced leadership behavior at Time 2. Leadership behavior at Time 4 synchronously influenced subordinate well-being at Time 4.

Measuring Spirituality as a Universal Human Experience: A Review of Spirituality Questionnaires

Spirituality is an important theme in health research, since a spiritual orientation can help people to cope with the consequences of a serious disease. Knowledge on the role of spirituality is, however, limited, as most research is based on measures of religiosity rather than spirituality. A questionnaire that transcends specific beliefs is a prerequisite for quantifying the importance of spirituality among people who adhere to a religion or none at all. In this review, we discuss ten questionnaires that address spirituality as a universal human experience. Questionnaires are evaluated with regard to psychometric properties, item formulation and confusion with well-being and distress. Although none of the questionnaires fulfilled all the criteria, the multidimensional Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire is promising.

Toward a process model of burnout: Results from a secondary analysis.

In this article, causal relations among three dimensions of burnout, as measured by the Maslach Burnout Inventory, were examined. Three causal models were examined using data from five earlier published longitudinal studies. Models were fitted using structural equation modelling (SEM) with multi-group analysis. In the best fitting model, personal accomplishment synchronously influenced depersonalization and depersonalization on its turn synchronously influenced emotional exhaustion. Practical implications of this model for the prevention of burnout were suggested.

Conflict and well‐being at work: the moderating role of personality

Purpose – This study examines the moderating influence of the Big Five factors of agreeableness, extraversion, and emotional stability on the relationship between conflict and well‐being.Design/methodology/approach – Two field studies were conducted in which respondents were asked to fill out questionnaires during work hours; the first study involved a health care organization, the second one a manufacturing organization.Findings – In performing sets of hierarchical regressions it was shown that conflict was negatively associated with well‐being, especially when individuals were low in agreeableness, low in emotional stability or low in extraversion.Research limitations/implications – We proposed directional relations between conflict and individual well‐being, however we cannot rule out the alternative in which reduced well‐being leads to more conflict. Future research using a cross‐lagged design with longitudinal data is needed to establish causal relationships.Practical implications – The most straight...

Servant leadership and commitment to change, the mediating role of justice and optimism

Purpose – The main aim of this study was to contribute to the change management literature by providing additional insight into how leadership encourages commitment to change.Design/methodology/approach – A sample of 135 employees of a reintegration company filled out a survey.Findings – Using structural equation modeling, the results showed that servant leadership and contingent reward leadership may contribute to a stronger sense of interactional justice, an optimistic attitude and commitment to change.Originality/value – This study contributes to the organizational change literature by providing a deeper insight into what aspect of leadership may be of essential importance for employees undergoing an organizational change process. It is the first study on the combined influence of servant leadership and contingent reward leadership in this process.

Burnout prevention through personal growth.

This study evaluated the effects of a burnout prevention program based on insights from transpersonal psychology, notably psychosynthesis. It examined the effects of the program on burnout, happiness, spirituality, emotional intelligence, and relative deprivation with respect to ones career. Thirty-eight individuals, mostly with a background in engineering, participated in a 10-day program over 3 months. A comparison group of similar age and work experience was recruited of colleagues from the same firms and departments. Both groups filled out questionnaires at 3 time points: before the start of the program, immediately after the program (3 months later), and 9 months later. Results showed that a psychosynthesis-based prevention program might be an effective instrument in reducing burnout and enhancing happiness, emotional intelligence, and feelings of spirituality. Copyright 2005 by the Educational Publishing Foundation.